{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,21]],"date-time":"2026-10-21T12:44:08Z","timestamp":1792586648349,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":117,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,2]],"date-time":"2023-02-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1675296000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Microbiol."],"abstract":"<jats:p>\n                    Leishmaniasis, one of the most neglected tropical diseases (NTDs), is the third most important vector-borne disease worldwide. This disease has a global impact and severity of the infection and is greatest in the Middle East. The agent of infection is a protozoan parasite of the genus,\n                    <jats:italic>Leishmania<\/jats:italic>\n                    , and is generally transmitted by blood-sucking female sandflies. In humans, there are three clinical forms of infection: (1) cutaneous (CL), (2) mucocutaneous (ML), and (3) visceral leishmaniasis (VL). This review aims to discuss the current epidemiological status of leishmaniasis in Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Syria, and Yemen with a consideration of treatment options. The elevated risk of leishmaniasis is influenced by the transmission of the disease across endemic countries into neighboring non-infected regions.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2022.1052478","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,2]],"date-time":"2023-02-02T03:46:16Z","timestamp":1675309576000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":91,"title":["Leishmaniasis: Recent epidemiological studies in the Middle East"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Chinyere A.","family":"Knight","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"David R.","family":"Harris","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shifaa O.","family":"Alshammari","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ayele","family":"Gugssa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Todd","family":"Young","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Clarence M.","family":"Lee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"654","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.20-1006","article-title":"Diagnosis and causative species of visceral leishmaniasis in Southwest Saudi Arabia.","volume":"105","author":"Abdelhaleem","year":"2021","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hygi."},{"key":"B2","first-page":"1","article-title":"Vaccination in Leishmaniasis: A review article.","volume":"26","author":"Abdellahi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Iran. Biomed. J."},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"673","DOI":"10.1089\/vbz.2017.2119","article-title":"Cutaneous Leishmaniasis in Saudi Arabia: A comprehensive overview.","volume":"17","author":"Abuzaid","year":"2017","journal-title":"Vect. Borne Zoon. Dis."},{"key":"B4","author":"Abuzaid","year":"2022","journal-title":"Public health deputyship, ministry of health, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Guidelines on management of visceral leishmaniasis"},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actatropica.2020.105707","article-title":"Visceral Leishmaniasis in Saudi Arabia: From hundreds of cases to zero.","volume":"212","author":"Abuzaid","year":"2020","journal-title":"Acta Trop."},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0006255","article-title":"An outbreak of Leishmania major from an endemic to a non-endemic region posed a public health threat in Iraq from 2014-2017: Epidemiological, molecular and phylogenetic studies.","volume":"12","author":"Al-Bajalan","year":"2018","journal-title":"PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis."},{"key":"B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actatropica.2020.105807","article-title":"First molecular identification of Leishmania major in Phlebotomus papatasi in an outbreak cutaneous leishmaniasis area in Iraq.","volume":"215","author":"Al-Bajalan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Acta Trop."},{"key":"B8","first-page":"2","article-title":"Epidemiology of cutaneous leishmaniasis in yemen, 2019-2020","author":"Al-Daari","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Epidemiol. Public Health Res"},{"key":"B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1697","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sjbs.2016.01.014","article-title":"Molecular typing of phlebotomine sand flies in al-Madinah and asir regions, Saudi Arabia using PCR \u2013 RFLP of 18S ribosomal RNA gene.","volume":"24","author":"Al-Dakhil","year":"2017","journal-title":"Saudi J. Biol. Sci."},{"key":"B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-021-05965-4","article-title":"Knowledge and attitude towards cutaneous Leishmaniasis among rural endemic communities in Shara\u2019b district, Taiz, Southwestern Yemen.","volume":"21","author":"Al-Harazi","year":"2021","journal-title":"BMC Infect. Dis."},{"key":"B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.22374\/1875-6859.14.4.4","article-title":"Epidemiological Study of Cutaneous Leishmaniasis in some Iraqi Provinces.","volume":"14","author":"Ali","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Mens. Health"},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"849","DOI":"10.1111\/ijd.13041","article-title":"Leishmaniasis in Yemen: A Clinicoepidemiological study of Leishmaniasis in central Yemen.","volume":"55","author":"Al-Kamel","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Dermatol."},{"key":"B13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.15761\/GOD.1000206","article-title":"Feasibility of teledermatology in the eradication of leishmaniasis from Yemen project.","volume":"4","author":"Al-Kamel","year":"","journal-title":"Glob. Dermatol."},{"key":"B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.7241\/ourd.20171.21","article-title":"Stigmata in cutaneous leishmaniasis: Historical and new evidence-based concepts.","volume":"8","author":"Al-Kamel","year":"","journal-title":"Our Dermatol. Online"},{"key":"B15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1155\/2019\/8248916","article-title":"Prevalence of cutaneous Leishmaniasis in Western Highlands in Yemen.","volume":"2019","author":"Alkulaibi","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Trop. Med."},{"key":"B16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.19080\/IJCSMB.2017.03.555609","article-title":"Leishmaniasis in Syria.","volume":"3","author":"Al-Nahhas","year":"2017","journal-title":"Inte. J. Cell Sci. Mole. Biol."},{"key":"B17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5402\/2013\/308726","article-title":"Characterization of Leishmania species isolated from cutaneous human samples from central region of Syria by RFLP analysis.","volume":"2013","author":"Al-Nahhas","year":"2013","journal-title":"ISRN Parasitol."},{"key":"B18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"757","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jiph.2022.05.015","article-title":"Distribution and epidemiological features of cutaneous leishmaniasis in Asir province, Saudi Arabia, from 2011 to 2020.","volume":"15","author":"Alraey","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Infect. Publ. Health"},{"key":"B19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-14702-z","article-title":"Genotypic and phylogenic analyses of cutaneous leishmaniasis in Al Ahsa, Eastern Saudi Arabia during the coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic: First cases of Leishmania tropica with the predominance of Leishmania major.","volume":"12","author":"Al-Rashed","year":"2022","journal-title":"Scientif. Rep."},{"key":"B20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"931","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2205.160042","article-title":"Cutaneous Leishmaniasis and Conflict in Syria.","volume":"22","author":"Al-Salem","year":"2016","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"B21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0035671","article-title":"Leishmaniasis worldwide and global estimates of its incidence.","volume":"7","author":"Alvar","year":"2012","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"B22","first-page":"255","article-title":"The distribution of cutaneous leishmaniasis in Iraq: Demographic and climate aspects.","volume":"11","author":"Al-Warid","year":"2017","journal-title":"Asian Biomed."},{"key":"B23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s12941-017-0224-y","article-title":"Parasitological and biochemical studies on cutaneous leishmaniasis in Shara\u2019b District, Taiz, Yemen.","volume":"16","author":"Asmaa","year":"2017","journal-title":"Anna. Clin. Microbiol. Antimicrob."},{"key":"B24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1742-7843.2005.pto960109.x","article-title":"Leishmanicidal activity of edelfosine, miltefosine and milmofosine.","volume":"96","author":"Azzouz","year":"2005","journal-title":"B. Clin. Pharm. Tox."},{"key":"B25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/9781118274408","author":"Barratt","year":"2012","journal-title":"Drug repositioning : Bringing new life to shelved assets and existing drugs."},{"key":"B26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1111\/imm.13409","article-title":"Metabolomic and lipidomic signatures associated with activation of human cDC1 (BDCA3+\/CD141+) dendritic cells.","volume":"165","author":"Basit","year":"2022","journal-title":"Immunology"},{"key":"B27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejmech.2018.10.022","article-title":"Leishmania treatment and prevention: Natural and synthesized drugs.","volume":"160","author":"Bekhit","year":"2018","journal-title":"Europ. J. Med. Chem."},{"key":"B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1240","DOI":"10.1007\/s11686-021-00395-3","article-title":"The Association Between the Syrian Crisis and Cutaneous Leishmaniasis in Lebanon.","volume":"66","author":"Bizri","year":"2021","journal-title":"Acta Parasitol."},{"key":"B29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1423","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciac127","article-title":"AmBisome monotherapy and combination AmBisome-Miltefosine therapy for the treatment of visceral leishmaniasis in patients coinfected with human immunodeficiency virus in India: A randomized open-label, parallel-Arm, phase 3 trial.","volume":"75","author":"Burza","year":"2022","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"B30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s42003-022-03240-z","article-title":"Sand flies: Basic information on the vectors of leishmaniasis and their interactions with Leishmania parasites.","volume":"5","author":"Cec\u00edlio","year":"2022","journal-title":"Commun. Biol."},{"key":"B31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3531","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2011.02.096","article-title":"A clinical trial to evaluate the safety and immunogenicity of the LEISH-F1+MPL-SE vaccine for use in the prevention of visceral leishmaniasis.","volume":"29","author":"Chakravarty","year":"2011","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"B32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"674","DOI":"10.1039\/b100455g","article-title":"Plant natural products with leishmanicidal activity.","volume":"18","author":"Chan","year":"2001","journal-title":"Nat. Prod. Rep."},{"key":"B33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines10020248","article-title":"Leishmaniac quest for developing a novel vaccine platform. is a roadmap for its advances provided by the mad dash to produce vaccines for COVID-19?","volume":"10","author":"Chang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Vaccines"},{"key":"B34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0009181","article-title":"The global procurement landscape of leishmaniasis medicines.","volume":"15","author":"Choi","year":"2021","journal-title":"PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis."},{"key":"B35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"584","DOI":"10.1603\/ME10226","article-title":"Impact of phlebotomine Sand Flies on United States military operations at tallil air base, Iraq: 6. evaluation of insecticides for the control of sand flies.","volume":"48","author":"Coleman","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Med. Entomol."},{"key":"B36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"170","DOI":"10.1080\/20477724.2020.1754655","article-title":"Potential of the natural products against leishmaniasis in the Old World - a review of in-vitro studies.","volume":"114","author":"Cortes","year":"2020","journal-title":"Pathog. Glob. Health"},{"key":"B37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"823","DOI":"10.1007\/s40257-022-00726-8","article-title":"Cutaneous Leishmaniasis: A 2022 updated narrative review into diagnosis and management developments.","volume":"23","author":"de Vries","year":"2022","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Dermatol."},{"key":"B38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0006988","article-title":"A randomized trial of AmBisome monotherapy and AmBisome and miltefosine combination to treat visceral leishmaniasis in HIV co-infected patients in Ethiopia.","volume":"13","author":"Diro","year":"2019","journal-title":"PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis."},{"key":"B39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"850","DOI":"10.1590\/S0074-02762010000700002","article-title":"Bionomics of phlebotomine sand flies (diptera: Psychodidae) in the province of Al-Baha, Saudi Arabia.","volume":"105","author":"Doha","year":"2010","journal-title":"Mem. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz"},{"key":"B40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2576","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dks275","article-title":"Miltefosine: A review of its pharmacology and therapeutic efficacy in the treatment of leishmaniasis.","volume":"67","author":"Dorlo","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"B41","first-page":"2961","article-title":"The Immunotherapeutic role of regulatory T Cells in Leishmania (Viannia) panamensis.","volume":"93","author":"Ehrlich","year":"2019","journal-title":"Infection"},{"key":"B42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2961","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.1400728","article-title":"The immunotherapeutic role of regulatory T cells in Leishmania (Viannia) panamensis infection.","volume":"193","author":"Ehrlich","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"B43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e334","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijid.2012.11.015","article-title":"International Journal of Infectious Diseases Molecular characterization of cutaneous leishmaniasis in Al-Madinah Al-Munawarah province, Western Saudi Arabia.","volume":"17","author":"El-Beshbishy","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"B44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"146","DOI":"10.4103\/jgid.jgid_16_17","article-title":"Epidemiological trends of cutaneous Leishmaniasis in Al-Madinah Al-Munawarah Province, Western Region of Saudi Arabia.","volume":"9","author":"Elmekki","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Glob. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"B45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actatropica.2016.06.005","article-title":"Current knowledge of sand fly fauna (Diptera: Psychodidae) of northwestern Yemen and how it relates to leishmaniasis transmission.","volume":"162","author":"El-Sawaf","year":"2016","journal-title":"Acta Trop."},{"key":"B46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1215","DOI":"10.2174\/1568026023393011","article-title":"Natural products as trypanocidal, antileishmanial and antimalarial drugs.","volume":"2","author":"Fournet","year":"2002","journal-title":"Curr. Top. Med. Chem."},{"key":"B47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S1463423622000421","article-title":"Research progress of health care in Yemeni children during the war: Review.","volume":"23","author":"Gaber","year":"2022","journal-title":"Prim. Health Care Res. Develop."},{"key":"B48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.12703\/r\/9-28","article-title":"An overview of the treatment of cutaneous leishmaniasis.","volume":"9","author":"Garza-Tovar","year":"2020","journal-title":"Facul. Rev."},{"key":"B49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.2147\/DDDT.S146521","article-title":"Leishmaniasis in humans: Drug or vaccine therapy?","volume":"12","author":"Ghorbani","year":"2017","journal-title":"Drug Design. Devel. Therapy"},{"key":"B50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2992","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2015.12.071","article-title":"Status of vaccine research and development of vaccines for leishmaniasis.","volume":"34","author":"Gillespie","year":"2016","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"B51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-015-1147-0","article-title":"Cutaneous leishmaniasis in the central provinces of Hama and Edlib in Syria: Vector identification and parasite typing.","volume":"8","author":"Haddad","year":"2015","journal-title":"Parasites Vect."},{"key":"B52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s12906-018-2128-6","article-title":"In vitro antileishmanial and cytotoxicity activities of essential oils from Haplophyllum tuberculatum A. Juss leaves, stems and aerial parts","volume":"18","author":"Hamdi","year":"2018","journal-title":"BMC Complement. Altern. Med"},{"key":"B53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-017-2497-6","article-title":"Cutaneous leishmaniasis in northwestern Saudi Arabia: Identification of sand fly fauna and parasites.","volume":"10","author":"Haouas","year":"2017","journal-title":"Parasit. Vect."},{"key":"B54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1016\/S1995-7645(14)60332-1","article-title":"Profile and geographical distribution of reported cutaneous leishmaniasis cases in Northwestern Saudi Arabia from 2010 to 2013.","volume":"8","author":"Haouas","year":"2015","journal-title":"Asian Pacif. J. Trop. Med."},{"key":"B55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules27217579","article-title":"Antileishmanial Activities of Medicinal Herbs and Phytochemicals In Vitro and In Vivo: An Update for the Years 2015 to 2021.","volume":"27","author":"Hassan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Molecules"},{"key":"B56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.3347\/kjp.2018.56.3.229","article-title":"Diagnosis, Treatment and Clinical Features of Cutaneous Leishmaniasis in Saudi Arabia.","volume":"56","author":"Hawash","year":"2018","journal-title":"Korean J. Parasitol."},{"key":"B57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"793","DOI":"10.1007\/s00436-019-06222-z","article-title":"Detection, genotyping, and phylogenetic analysis of Leishmania isolates collected from infected Jordanian residents and Syrian refugees who suffered from cutaneous leishmaniasis.","volume":"118","author":"Hijawi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Parasitol. Res."},{"key":"B58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/tropicalmed5010046","article-title":"Role of Host and Parasite MIF Cytokines during Leishmania Infection.","volume":"5","author":"Holowka","year":"2020","journal-title":"Trop. Med. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"B59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1155\/2012\/203818","article-title":"Reactive oxygen species and nitric oxide in cutaneous leishmaniasis.","volume":"2012","author":"Horta","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Parasitol. Res."},{"key":"B60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.26633\/RPSP.2022.89","article-title":"Evidence map of diagnosis, treatment, prognosis, prevention, and control in visceral leishmaniasis.","volume":"46","author":"Ibiapina","year":"2022","journal-title":"Rev. Panam. Salud. Publica"},{"key":"B61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.parepi.2021.e00201","article-title":"The potential role and apoptotic profile of three medicinal plant extracts on Leishmania tropica by MTT assay, macrophage model and flow cytometry analysis.","volume":"12","author":"Ilaghi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Parasit. Epidemiol. Control"},{"key":"B62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1089\/vbz.2010.0068","article-title":"Leishmaniasis in an era of conflict in the Middle East.","volume":"11","author":"Jacobson","year":"2011","journal-title":"Vect. Borne Zoonot. Dis."},{"key":"B63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-017-2204-7","article-title":"The evolution of trypanosomatid taxonomy.","volume":"10","author":"Kaufer","year":"2017","journal-title":"Parasit. Vect."},{"key":"B64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1038\/nrd1308","article-title":"Engaging biotechnology companies in the development of innovative solutions for diseases of poverty.","volume":"3","author":"Kettler","year":"2004","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Drug Dis."},{"key":"B65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3642","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2005.02.015","article-title":"Leishmanization: Use of an old method for evaluation of candidate vaccines against leishmaniasis.","volume":"23","author":"Khamesipour","year":"2005","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"B66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"658","DOI":"10.26719\/emhj.22.070","article-title":"Pilot study of safety and efficacy of topical liposomal amphotericin B for cutaneous leishmaniasis caused by Leishmania major in Islamic Republic of Iran.","volume":"28","author":"Khamesipour","year":"2022","journal-title":"Eastern Mediterr. Health J."},{"key":"B67","first-page":"990","article-title":"Natural products as drug leads: An old process, or new hope for drug discovery?","volume":"8","author":"Kingston","year":"2005","journal-title":"IDrugs"},{"key":"B68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2196\/28255","article-title":"Impact of modifiable risk factors on the occurrence of cutaneous Leishmaniasis in diyala, Iraq: Case-control study.","volume":"2","author":"Lehlewa","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Med. Int. Res."},{"key":"B69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.3949\/ccjm.72.2.93","article-title":"Non healing skin lesions in a sailor and a journalist returning from Iraq.","volume":"72","author":"Lesho","year":"2005","journal-title":"Clevel. Clin. J. Med."},{"key":"B70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1051","DOI":"10.1089\/hum.2006.17.1051","article-title":"DNA vaccines: Recent developments and future possibilities.","volume":"17","author":"Liu","year":"2006","journal-title":"Hum. Gene Ther."},{"key":"B71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1155\/2019\/4103819","article-title":"Sex-related differences in immune response and symptomatic manifestations to infection with Leishmania Species.","volume":"2019","author":"Lockard","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Immunol. Res."},{"key":"B72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0010238","article-title":"A phase II multicenter randomized study to evaluate the safety and efficacy of combining thermotherapy and a short course of miltefosine for the treatment of uncomplicated cutaneous leishmaniasis in the New World.","volume":"16","author":"Lopez","year":"2022","journal-title":"PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis."},{"key":"B73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4714","DOI":"10.1021\/jm021114j","article-title":"Azasterols as inhibitors of sterol 24- methyltransferase in Leishmania species and Trypanosoma cruzi.","volume":"46","author":"Magaraci","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Med. Chem."},{"key":"B74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0151265","article-title":"First Molecular Characterization of Leishmania Species Causing Visceral Leishmaniasis among Children in Yemen.","volume":"11","author":"Mahdy","year":"2016","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"B75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0012879","article-title":"Molecular characterization of Leishmania species isolated from cutaneous leishmaniasis in Yemen.","volume":"5","author":"Mahdy","year":"2010","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"B76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0009742","article-title":"Human leishmaniasis vaccines: Use cases, target population and potential global demand.","volume":"15","author":"Malvolti","year":"2021","journal-title":"PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis."},{"key":"B77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2915.2012.01034.x","article-title":"Phlebotomine sandflies and the spreading of leishmaniases and other diseases of public health concern.","volume":"27","author":"Maroli","year":"2013","journal-title":"Med. Vet. Entomol."},{"key":"B78","author":"Maxfield","year":"2022","journal-title":"Leishmaniasis."},{"key":"B79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1086\/515085","article-title":"U.S. Food and Drug Administration approval of AmBisome (liposomal amphotericin B) for treatment of visceral leishmaniasis.","volume":"28","author":"Meyerhoff","year":"1999","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"B80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1177\/14782715221088906","article-title":"An overview of the functionalities of PubMed.","volume":"52","author":"Misra","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Roy. College Phys. Edinb."},{"key":"B81","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4103\/ijpvm.IJPVM_116_18","article-title":"Leishmania vaccines entered in clinical trials: A review of literature.","volume":"10","author":"Moafi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Prevent. Med."},{"key":"B82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2036","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciy811","article-title":"Asymptomatic Visceral Leishmania infantum Infection in US Soldiers Deployed to Iraq.","volume":"68","author":"Mody","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"B83","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1004684","article-title":"Leishmania infantum Modulates Host Macrophage Mitochondrial Metabolism by Hijacking the SIRT1-AMPK Axis.","volume":"11","author":"Moreira","year":"2015","journal-title":"PLoS Pathog."},{"key":"B84","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0007827","article-title":"Cutaneous leishmaniasis in Syria: A review of available data during the war years: 2011-2018.","volume":"13","author":"Muhjazi","year":"2019","journal-title":"PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis."},{"key":"B85","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciac643","article-title":"Paromomycin and Miltefosine Combination as an Alternative to Treat Patients With Visceral Leishmaniasis in Eastern Africa: A Randomized, Controlled, Multicountry Trial.","author":"Musa","year":"2022","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"B86","author":"Myler","year":"2008","journal-title":"Leishmania - After the Genome."},{"key":"B87","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2196\/27442","article-title":"Cutaneous Leishmaniasis Outbreak Investigation in Hajjah Governorate, Yemen, in 2018: Case-Control Study.","volume":"7","author":"Nassar","year":"2021","journal-title":"JMIR Publ. Health Surveil."},{"key":"B88","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"919","DOI":"10.1038\/nrd1230","article-title":"Virtual drug discovery and development for neglected diseases through public-private partnerships.","volume":"2","author":"Nwaka","year":"2003","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Drug Dis."},{"key":"B89","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms9122500","article-title":"Antileishmanial Drug Discovery and Development: Time to Reset the Model?","volume":"9","author":"Oli\u00ecas-Molero","year":"2021","journal-title":"Microorganisms"},{"key":"B90","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0005527","article-title":"A third generation vaccine for human visceral leishmaniasis and post kala azar dermal leishmaniasis: First-in-human trial of ChAd63-KH.","volume":"11","author":"Osman","year":"2017","journal-title":"PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis."},{"key":"B91","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2021.639801","article-title":"Revival of Leishmanization and Leishmanin.","volume":"11","author":"Pacheco-Fernandez","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol."},{"key":"B92","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijantimicag.2021.106459","article-title":"An update on the clinical pharmacology of miltefosine in the treatment of leishmaniasis.","volume":"59","author":"Pali\u0107","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents"},{"key":"B93","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0005957","article-title":"Efficacy of cryotherapy plus topical Juniperus excelsa M. Bieb cream versus cryotherapy plus placebo in the treatment of Old World cutaneous leishmaniasis: A triple-blind randomized controlled clinical trial.","volume":"11","author":"Parvizi","year":"2017","journal-title":"PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis."},{"key":"B94","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"516","DOI":"10.1111\/ced.14919","article-title":"Treatment options for leishmaniasis.","volume":"47","author":"Pradhan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Dermatol."},{"key":"B95","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-7091-1613-5_5","article-title":"Cutaneous Leishmaniasis in middle East and North Africa","author":"Rafati","year":"2014","journal-title":"Neglected tropical diseases\u2013Middle East and North Africa. neglected tropical diseases"},{"key":"B96","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics14050989","article-title":"Formulation of amphotericin B in PEGylated Liposomes for improved treatment of cutaneous leishmaniasis by parenteral and oral routes.","volume":"14","author":"Ramos","year":"2022","journal-title":"Pharmaceutics"},{"key":"B97","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-019-6710-8","article-title":"Prevalence of Leishmania species among patients with cutaneous leishmaniasis in Qassim province of Saudi Arabia.","volume":"19","author":"Rasheed","year":"2019","journal-title":"BMC Publ Health"},{"key":"B98","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"153557","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-ento-120811-153557","article-title":"Biology of Phlebotomine Sand Flies as Vectors of Disease Agents.","volume":"58","author":"Ready","year":"2013","journal-title":"Annual Rev. Entomol."},{"key":"B99","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1973","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2411.172146","article-title":"Leishmaniasis in Northern Syria during the Civil War.","volume":"24","author":"Rehman","year":"2018","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"B100","article-title":"Leishmaniasis in the Middle East: Incidence and Epidemiology.","volume":"8","author":"Salam","year":"2014","journal-title":"Publ. Lib. Sci."},{"key":"B101","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/jcla.24599","article-title":"Global distribution of treatment resistance gene markers for leishmaniasis.","volume":"36","author":"Salari","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Clin. Lab. Analys."},{"key":"B102","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms10101887","article-title":"Visceral Leishmaniasis: Epidemiology, Diagnosis, and Treatment Regimens in Different Geographical Areas with a Focus on Pediatrics.","volume":"10","author":"Scarpini","year":"2022","journal-title":"Microorganisms"},{"key":"B103","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"479","DOI":"10.5772\/39291","article-title":"Immunology of Leishmaniasis and Future Prospective of Vaccines","author":"Sehgal","year":"2012","journal-title":"Recent advances in immunology to target cancer, inflammation and infections"},{"key":"B104","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"808","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.49.2.808-812.2005","article-title":"In vitro antileishmanial activity of nicotinamide.","volume":"49","author":"Sereno","year":"2005","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"B105","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.1007\/s10156-004-0348-9","article-title":"Challenges and new discoveries in the treatment of leishmaniasis.","volume":"10","author":"Singh","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Infect. Chemother."},{"key":"B106","first-page":"859","article-title":"Epidemiology and incidence of leishmaniasis in Jazan region, Saudi Arabia (2007-2015): An overview.","volume":"6","author":"Sirdar","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Entomol. Zool. Stud."},{"key":"B107","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actatropica.2021.105944","article-title":"Comparative assessment of interventions for treating cutaneous leishmaniasis: A network meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials.","volume":"220","author":"Sridharan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Acta Trop."},{"key":"B108","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-017-2028-5","article-title":"The history of leishmaniasis.","volume":"10","author":"Steverding","year":"2017","journal-title":"Parasites Vect."},{"key":"B109","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjgh-2018-000709","article-title":"Why miltefosine-a-life-saving drug for leishmaniasis is unavailable to people who need it most.","volume":"3","author":"Sunyoto","year":"2018","journal-title":"BMJ Glob. Health"},{"key":"B110","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1329","DOI":"10.4314\/ahs.v19i1.4","article-title":"Review of Leishmaniasis in the Middle East and North Africa.","volume":"19","author":"Tabbabi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Afri. Health Sci."},{"key":"B111","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.parint.2022.102661","article-title":"Identification of protein biomarkers of attenuation and immunogenicity of centrin or p27 gene deleted live vaccine candidates of Leishmania against visceral leishmaniasis.","volume":"92","author":"Tandon","year":"2023","journal-title":"Parasitol. Int."},{"key":"B112","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1431","DOI":"10.1080\/14760584.2021.1969231","article-title":"From infection to vaccination: Reviewing the global burden, history of vaccine development, and recurring challenges in global leishmaniasis protection.","volume":"20","author":"Volpedo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Exp. Rev. Vacc."},{"key":"B113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0010665","article-title":"Review of the neglected tropical diseases programme implementation during 2012-2019 in the WHO-Eastern Mediterranean Region.","volume":"16","author":"Warusavithana","year":"2022","journal-title":"PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis."},{"key":"B114","year":"2021","journal-title":"Purchasing power parity (PPP) index. Poverty headcount ratio at $1.90 a day (% of population)"},{"key":"B115","year":"","journal-title":"Status of endemicity of cutaneous leishmaniasis: 2021. Interactive dashboard"},{"key":"B116","year":"","journal-title":"Health sector bulletin. Health sector syria. Reporting period: 01-01-2020 to 31-01-2020"},{"key":"B117","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"218","DOI":"10.3390\/immuno2010015","article-title":"Host-pathogen interaction in leishmaniasis: Immune response and vaccination strategies","author":"Yasmin","year":"2022","journal-title":"Immuno 2"}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Microbiology"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fmicb.2022.1052478\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,2]],"date-time":"2023-02-02T03:46:29Z","timestamp":1675309589000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fmicb.2022.1052478\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,2]]},"references-count":117,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fmicb.2022.1052478"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fmicb.2022.1052478","relation":{},"ISSN":["1664-302X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1664-302X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,2]]},"article-number":"1052478"}}