{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,29]],"date-time":"2026-10-29T12:31:49Z","timestamp":1793277109071,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":129,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,4]],"date-time":"2022-05-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1651622400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Microbiol."],"abstract":"<jats:p>Human T-cell leukemia virus type 1 (HTLV-1) is an oncogenic human retrovirus which causes a lifelong infection. An estimated 5\u201310 million persons are infected with HTLV-1 worldwide \u2013 a number which is likely higher due to lack of reliable epidemiological data. Most infected individuals remain asymptomatic; however, a portion of HTLV-1-positive individuals will develop an aggressive CD4+ T-cell malignancy called adult T-cell leukemia\/lymphoma (ATL), or a progressive neurodegenerative disease known as HTLV-1-associated myelopathy\/tropical spastic paraparesis (HAM\/TSP). Few treatment options exist for HAM\/TSP outside of palliative care and ATL carries an especially poor prognosis given the heterogeneity of the disease and lack of effective long-term treatments. In addition, the risk of HTLV-1 disease development increases substantially if the virus is acquired early in life. Currently, there is no realistic cure for HTLV-1 infection nor any reliable measure to prevent HTLV-1-mediated disease development. The severity of HTLV-1-associated diseases (ATL, HAM\/TSP) and limited treatment options highlights the need for development of a preventative vaccine or new therapeutic interventions. This review will highlight past HTLV-1 vaccine development efforts, the current molecular tools and animal models which might be useful in vaccine development, and the future possibilities of an effective HTLV-1 vaccine.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2022.897346","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,4]],"date-time":"2022-05-04T06:26:02Z","timestamp":1651645562000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":15,"title":["The Past, Present, and Future of a Human T-Cell Leukemia Virus Type 1 Vaccine"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Joshua J.","family":"Tu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Victoria","family":"Maksimova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lee","family":"Ratner","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Amanda R.","family":"Panfil","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2212","DOI":"10.1016\/s0264-410x(99)00565-4","article-title":"Targeted expression of HTLV-I envelope proteins in muscle by DNA immunization of mice.","volume":"18","author":"Armand","year":"2000","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3976","DOI":"10.1182\/blood-2005-11-4551","article-title":"Enhancement of infectivity and persistence in vivo by HBZ, a natural antisense coded protein of HTLV-1.","volume":"107","author":"Arnold","year":"2006","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"716","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/175.3.716","article-title":"Neutralizing activity and antibody reactivity toward immunogenic regions of the human T cell leukemia virus type I surface glycoprotein in sera of infected patients with different clinical states.","volume":"175","author":"Astier-Gin","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. 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