{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,23]],"date-time":"2026-06-23T17:17:19Z","timestamp":1782235039111,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":105,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,28]],"date-time":"2024-05-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1716854400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Microbiol."],"abstract":"<jats:p>While neurological complications of COVID-19, such as encephalopathy, are relatively rare, their potential significant impact on long-term morbidity is substantial, especially given the large number of infected patients. Two proposed hypotheses for the pathogenesis of this condition are hypoxia and the uncontrolled release of proinflammatory cytokines. The gut microbiota plays an important role in regulating immune homeostasis and overall gut health, including its effects on brain health through various pathways collectively termed the gut\u2013brain axis. Recent studies have shown that COVID-19 patients exhibit gut dysbiosis, but how this dysbiosis can affect inflammation in the central nervous system (CNS) remains unclear. In this context, we discuss how dysbiosis could contribute to neuroinflammation and provide recent data on the features of neuroinflammation in COVID-19 patients.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2024.1406874","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,28]],"date-time":"2024-05-28T05:28:36Z","timestamp":1716874116000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["COVID-19-associated encephalopathy: connection between neuroinflammation and microbiota-gut-brain axis"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Khrystyna","family":"Duve","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Pavlo","family":"Petakh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Oleksandr","family":"Kamyshnyi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nrl.2020.11.013","article-title":"Encephalopathy and encephalitis during acute SARS-CoV-2 infection. Spanish Society of Neurology COVID-19 registry","volume":"36","author":"Abenza Abild\u00faa","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neurologia"},{"key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"102216","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msard.2020.102216","article-title":"Evolution and resolution of brain involvement associated with SARS-CoV-2 infection: a close clinical - Paraclinical follow up study of a case","volume":"43","author":"Afshar","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mult. Scler. Relat. Disord."},{"key":"ref3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jocn.2020.05.017","article-title":"Neurological manifestations and complications of COVID-19: a literature review","volume":"77","author":"Ahmad","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Clin. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e31029","DOI":"10.1097\/MD.0000000000031029","article-title":"Delayed encephalopathy after COVID-19: a case series of six patients","volume":"101","author":"Akimoto","year":"2022","journal-title":"Medicine"},{"key":"ref5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1089\/vim.2020.0085","article-title":"Type I IFNs: a blessing in disguise or partner in crime in MERS-CoV-, SARS-CoV-, and SARS-CoV-2-induced pathology and potential use of type I IFNs in synergism with IFN-\u03b3 as a novel antiviral approach against COVID-19","volume":"34","author":"Anjum","year":"2021","journal-title":"Viral Immunol."},{"key":"ref6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1038\/mp.2016.182","article-title":"The bacterial peptidoglycan-sensing molecule Pglyrp2 modulates brain development and behavior","volume":"22","author":"Arentsen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1016\/j.seizure.2020.05.005","article-title":"Seizures associated with coronavirus infections","volume":"79","author":"Asadi-Pooya","year":"2020","journal-title":"Seizure"},{"key":"ref8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1155\/2018\/8063647","article-title":"Immunomodulatory effects of probiotics on cytokine profiles","volume":"2018","author":"Azad","year":"2018","journal-title":"Biomed. Res. Int."},{"key":"ref9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"236","DOI":"10.1186\/s13054-021-03659-6","article-title":"Infectious disease-associated encephalopathies","volume":"25","author":"Barbosa-Silva","year":"2021","journal-title":"Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"401","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2009.08.011","article-title":"Regulatory T cells reinforce intestinal homeostasis","volume":"31","author":"Barnes","year":"2009","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"ref11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1503","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaneurol.2021.3821","article-title":"Anti-SARS-CoV-2 and autoantibody profiles in the cerebrospinal fluid of 3 teenaged patients with COVID-19 and subacute neuropsychiatric symptoms","volume":"78","author":"Bartley","year":"2021","journal-title":"JAMA Neurol."},{"key":"ref12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"845","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2020.00845","article-title":"Neurological manifestations of severe SARS-CoV-2 infection: potential mechanisms and implications of individualized mechanical ventilation settings","volume":"11","author":"Battaglini","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Neurol."},{"key":"ref98","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5926","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-022-33395-6","article-title":"Gut microbiome dysbiosis in antibiotic-treated COVID-19 patients is associated with microbial translocation and bacteremia","volume":"13","author":"Bernard-Raichon","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"250","DOI":"10.1016\/0006-8993(92)91004-X","article-title":"Microglial-produced nitric oxide and reactive nitrogen oxides mediate neuronal cell death","volume":"587","author":"Boje","year":"1992","journal-title":"Brain Res."},{"key":"ref14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"263ra158","DOI":"10.1126\/scitranslmed.3009759","article-title":"The gut microbiota influences blood\u2013brain barrier permeability in mice","volume":"6","author":"Braniste","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sci. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"370","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-017-2026-2","article-title":"Cognitive performance of children living in endemic areas for plasmodium vivax","volume":"16","author":"Brasil","year":"2017","journal-title":"Malar. J."},{"key":"ref16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"180","DOI":"10.1186\/s12974-019-1564-7","article-title":"The endotoxin hypothesis of neurodegeneration","volume":"16","author":"Brown","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Neuroinflammation"},{"key":"ref17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1002\/glia.20217","article-title":"Rapid and reactive nitric oxide production by astrocytes in mouse neocortical slices","volume":"52","author":"Buskila","year":"2005","journal-title":"Glia"},{"key":"ref18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"105131","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nbd.2020.105131","article-title":"The SARS-CoV-2 spike protein alters barrier function in 2D static and 3D microfluidic in vitro models of the human blood\u2013brain barrier","volume":"146","author":"Buzhdygan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neurobiol. Dis."},{"key":"ref19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1016\/0092-8674(78)90305-7","article-title":"Sodium butyrate inhibits histone deacetylation in cultured cells","volume":"14","author":"Candido","year":"1978","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1383","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dld.2020.09.009","article-title":"Intestinal permeability changes with bacterial translocation as key events modulating systemic host immune response to SARS-CoV-2: a working hypothesis","volume":"52","author":"Cardinale","year":"2020","journal-title":"Digest. Liver Dis."},{"key":"ref21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"352","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2567.2009.03204.x","article-title":"Well-controlled proinflammatory cytokine responses of Peyer's patch cells to probiotic Lactobacillus casei","volume":"130","author":"Chiba","year":"2010","journal-title":"Immunology"},{"key":"ref22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"742","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-36941-9","article-title":"Prominent action of butyrate over \u03b2-hydroxybutyrate as histone deacetylase inhibitor, transcriptional modulator and anti-inflammatory molecule","volume":"9","author":"Chriett","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1877","DOI":"10.1152\/physrev.00018.2018","article-title":"The microbiota-gut-brain Axis","volume":"99","author":"Cryan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Physiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbi.2020.05.022","article-title":"Plasmapheresis treatment in COVID-19-related autoimmune meningoencephalitis: case series","volume":"87","author":"Dogan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Brain Behav. Immun."},{"key":"ref25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"697","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-022-04569-5","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 is associated with changes in brain structure in UK biobank","volume":"604","author":"Douaud","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e294","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0000000000010977","article-title":"CSF biomarkers in patients with COVID-19 and neurologic symptoms: a case series","volume":"96","author":"Ed\u00e9n","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"767","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(20)30221-0","article-title":"Neurological associations of COVID-19","volume":"19","author":"Ellul","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol."},{"key":"ref28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"107602962110429","DOI":"10.1177\/10760296211042940","article-title":"Is it all about endothelial dysfunction and thrombosis formation? The secret of COVID-19","volume":"27","author":"Elyaspour","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin. Appl. Thromb. Hemost."},{"key":"ref29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"415","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbi.2020.12.022","article-title":"High frequency of cerebrospinal fluid autoantibodies in COVID-19 patients with neurological symptoms","volume":"93","author":"Franke","year":"2021","journal-title":"Brain Behav. Immun."},{"key":"ref30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e1198","DOI":"10.1002\/cti2.1198","article-title":"Intravenous immunoglobulin immunotherapy for coronavirus disease-19 (COVID-19)","volume":"9","author":"Galeotti","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Transl. Immunol."},{"key":"ref31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"206","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.26207","article-title":"Encephalopathy in patients with COVID-19: a review","volume":"93","author":"Garg","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"316","DOI":"10.1002\/9781118777329.ch81","article-title":"Neurological complications of human herpesvirus infections","author":"Gilden","year":"2016","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"729","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molmed.2020.05.003","article-title":"Bacterial peptidoglycans from microbiota in neurodevelopment and behavior","volume":"26","author":"Gonzalez-Santana","year":"2020","journal-title":"Trends Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1435","DOI":"10.1007\/s13311-022-01267-y","article-title":"Therapeutic approaches to the neurologic manifestations of COVID-19","volume":"19","author":"Graham","year":"2022","journal-title":"Neurotherapeutics"},{"key":"ref35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2669","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciaa709","article-title":"Alterations of the gut microbiota in patients with coronavirus disease 2019 or H1N1 influenza","volume":"71","author":"Gu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"64","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbi.2005.04.005","article-title":"Peripheral immune activation by lipopolysaccharide decreases neurotrophins in the cortex and hippocampus in rats","volume":"20","author":"Guan","year":"2006","journal-title":"Brain Behav. Immun."},{"key":"ref37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"631","DOI":"10.1002\/path.1570","article-title":"Tissue distribution of ACE2 protein, the functional receptor for SARS coronavirus. A first step in understanding SARS pathogenesis","volume":"203","author":"Hamming","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Pathol."},{"key":"ref38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"491","DOI":"10.1186\/s13054-020-03200-1","article-title":"Delirium and encephalopathy in severe COVID-19: a cohort analysis of ICU patients","volume":"24","author":"Helms","year":"2020","journal-title":"Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"388","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(15)70016-5","article-title":"Neuroinflammation in Alzheimer's disease","volume":"14","author":"Heneka","year":"2015","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol."},{"key":"ref40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2265","DOI":"10.1007\/s00134-020-06141-z","article-title":"Emerging pharmacological therapies for ARDS: COVID-19 and beyond","volume":"46","author":"Horie","year":"2020","journal-title":"Intensive Care Med."},{"key":"ref41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1263","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awab009","article-title":"Cognitive impairment and altered cerebral glucose metabolism in the subacute stage of COVID-19","volume":"144","author":"Hosp","year":"2021","journal-title":"Brain J. Neurol."},{"key":"ref42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1186\/s40168-018-0439-y","article-title":"Microbiome\u2013host systems interactions: protective effects of propionate upon the blood\u2013brain barrier","volume":"6","author":"Hoyles","year":"2018","journal-title":"Microbiome"},{"key":"ref43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4013","DOI":"10.1007\/s00415-022-11152-5","article-title":"Intravenous immunoglobulins for treatment of severe COVID-19-related acute encephalopathy","volume":"269","author":"Huo","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Neurol."},{"key":"ref44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"853","DOI":"10.1016\/j.healun.2020.05.016","article-title":"COVID-19 leading to acute encephalopathy in a patient with heart transplant","volume":"39","author":"Jang","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Heart Lung Transplant"},{"key":"ref45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1017\/S0140525X07001185","article-title":"The Parieto-frontal integration theory (P-FIT) of intelligence: converging neuroimaging evidence","volume":"30","author":"Jung","year":"2007","journal-title":"Behav. Brain Sci."},{"key":"ref46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"qgae030","DOI":"10.1093\/postmj\/qgae030","article-title":"Crosstalk between COVID-19 and the gut-brain axis: a gut feeling","author":"Kalam","year":"2024","journal-title":"Postgrad. Med. J."},{"key":"ref47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2465","DOI":"10.1007\/s12035-020-02245-1","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 infection in the central and peripheral nervous system-associated morbidities and their potential mechanism","volume":"58","author":"Karuppan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mol. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1875","DOI":"10.3348\/kjr.2021.0127","article-title":"Neuroimaging findings in patients with COVID-19: a systematic review and Meta-analysis","volume":"22","author":"Kim","year":"2021","journal-title":"Korean J. Radiol."},{"key":"ref49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1932","DOI":"10.1007\/s10620-020-06362-8","article-title":"Clinical insights into the gastrointestinal manifestations of COVID-19","volume":"65","author":"Kopel","year":"2020","journal-title":"Dig. Dis. Sci."},{"key":"ref50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1289","DOI":"10.1007\/s10096-014-2086-y","article-title":"Probiotics in respiratory virus infections","volume":"33","author":"Lehtoranta","year":"2014","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e13","DOI":"10.1161\/HYPERTENSIONAHA.120.16647","article-title":"Butyrate regulates COVID-19-relevant genes in gut epithelial organoids from normotensive rats","volume":"77","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"Hypertension (Dallas, Tex: 1979)"},{"key":"ref52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0181690","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0181690","article-title":"Effects of oral florfenicol and azithromycin on gut microbiota and adipogenesis in mice","volume":"12","author":"Li","year":"2017","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"ref53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2221","DOI":"10.1002\/acn3.51210","article-title":"Frequent neurologic manifestations and encephalopathy-associated morbidity in Covid-19 patients","volume":"7","author":"Liotta","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ann. Clin. Transl. Neurol."},{"key":"ref54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"565","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(20)30251-8","article-title":"Genomic characterization and epidemiology of 2019 novel coronavirus: implications for virus origins and receptor binding","volume":"395","author":"Lu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet (London, England)."},{"key":"ref55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"417","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2017.00417","article-title":"The microbiota and epigenetic regulation of T helper 17\/regulatory T cells: in search of a balanced immune system","volume":"8","author":"Luo","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1016\/S0083-6729(02)64006-3","article-title":"Interleukin-1 beta exerts a myriad of effects in the brain and in particular in the hippocampus: analysis of some of these actions","volume":"64","author":"Lynch","year":"2002","journal-title":"Vitam. Horm."},{"key":"ref57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1098386","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2023.1098386","article-title":"Role of gut microbiota in infectious and inflammatory diseases","volume":"14","author":"Maciel-Fiuza","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.4161\/viru.27372","article-title":"Epidemiology of severe sepsis","volume":"5","author":"Mayr","year":"2014","journal-title":"Virulence"},{"key":"ref59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2249146","DOI":"10.1080\/19490976.2023.2249146","article-title":"Gut microbiota from patients with COVID-19 cause alterations in mice that resemble post-COVID symptoms","volume":"15","author":"Mendes de Almeida","year":"2023","journal-title":"Gut Microbes"},{"key":"ref60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.neuropsych.22010002","article-title":"Consensus clinical guidance for diagnosis and Management of Adult COVID-19 encephalopathy patients","volume":"35","author":"Michael","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Neuropsychiatry Clin. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1518","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1471-4159.2003.02120.x","article-title":"Pharmacologic suppression of neuronal oxidative damage and dendritic degeneration following direct activation of glial innate immunity in mouse cerebrum","volume":"87","author":"Milatovic","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Neurochem."},{"key":"ref62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"530","DOI":"10.5009\/gnl20112","article-title":"Expression of receptors for SARS-CoV-2 in the gut of patients with inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"14","author":"Monteleone","year":"2020","journal-title":"Gut Liver"},{"key":"ref63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.1038\/s41579-020-00460-0","article-title":"The gut microbiota\u2013brain axis in behaviour and brain disorders","volume":"19","author":"Morais","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1097\/01.shk.0000191378.55274.37","article-title":"PEPTIDOGLYCAN-AN ENDOTOXIN IN ITS OWN RIGHT?","volume":"25","author":"Myhre","year":"2006","journal-title":"Shock (Augusta, GA)"},{"key":"ref65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"304","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pnpbp.2013.08.008","article-title":"Network beyond IDO in psychiatric disorders: revisiting neurodegeneration hypothesis","volume":"48","author":"Myint","year":"2014","journal-title":"Prog. Neuro-Psychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1374","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajpath.2021.05.007","article-title":"COVID-19 vasculopathy: mounting evidence for an indirect mechanism of endothelial injury","volume":"191","author":"Nicosia","year":"2021","journal-title":"Am. J. Pathol."},{"key":"ref67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1450","DOI":"10.1152\/ajplegacy.1973.224.6.1450","article-title":"Carrier-mediated blood\u2013brain barrier transport of short-chain monocarboxylic organic acids","volume":"224","author":"Oldendorf","year":"1973","journal-title":"Am. J. Phys."},{"key":"ref68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100074","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dscb.2023.100074","article-title":"COVID-19 delirium and encephalopathy: pathophysiology assumed in the first 3 years of the ongoing pandemic","volume":"10","author":"Otani","year":"2023","journal-title":"Brain Disord. (Amsterdam, Netherlands)."},{"key":"ref69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"426","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2019.00426","article-title":"Microbiome dependent regulation of Tregs and Th17 cells in mucosa","volume":"10","author":"Pandiyan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"248","DOI":"10.1111\/ene.14491","article-title":"Cytokine release syndrome-associated encephalopathy in patients with COVID-19","volume":"28","author":"Perrin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur. J. Neurol."},{"key":"ref71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiaa609","article-title":"Clinical presentation and outcomes of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2-related encephalitis: the ENCOVID multicenter study","volume":"223","author":"Pilotto","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"423","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.25783","article-title":"Steroid-responsive encephalitis in coronavirus disease 2019","volume":"88","author":"Pilotto","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ann. Neurol."},{"key":"ref73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1232480","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2023.1232480","article-title":"Gut-brain pathogenesis of postacute COVID-19 neurocognitive symptoms","volume":"17","author":"Plummer","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"543","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0000000000010354","article-title":"COVID-19-related encephalopathy responsive to high-dose glucocorticoids","volume":"95","author":"Pugin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e073923","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj-2022-073923","article-title":"Pathophysiology, diagnosis, and management of neuroinflammation in covid-19","volume":"382","author":"Rachel","year":"2023","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"635","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.biochem.71.110601.135414","article-title":"Lipopolysaccharide endotoxins","volume":"71","author":"Raetz","year":"2002","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Biochem."},{"key":"ref77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1186\/s12974-023-02711-2","article-title":"The brain reacting to COVID-19: analysis of the cerebrospinal fluid proteome, RNA and inflammation","volume":"20","author":"Reinhold","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Neuroinflammation"},{"key":"ref78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1369","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psyneuen.2008.08.003","article-title":"Architectural changes to CA1 pyramidal neurons in adult and aged mice after peripheral immune stimulation","volume":"33","author":"Richwine","year":"2008","journal-title":"Psychoneuroendocrinology"},{"key":"ref79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1186\/s13054-021-03537-1","article-title":"Early effects of ventilatory rescue therapies on systemic and cerebral oxygenation in mechanically ventilated COVID-19 patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome: a prospective observational study","volume":"25","author":"Robba","year":"2021","journal-title":"Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.00042-07","article-title":"Central nervous system tuberculosis: pathogenesis and clinical aspects","volume":"21","author":"Rock","year":"2008","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref81","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2030340","article-title":"Tocilizumab in patients hospitalized with Covid-19 pneumonia","volume":"384","author":"Salama","year":"2021","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e63301","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0063301","article-title":"Regulation of IDO activity by oxygen supply: inhibitory effects on antimicrobial and immunoregulatory functions","volume":"8","author":"Schmidt","year":"2013","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"ref83","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"194","DOI":"10.1038\/nrn1870","article-title":"Astrocyte dysfunction in neurological disorders: a molecular perspective","volume":"7","author":"Seifert","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref84","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e16620","DOI":"10.7759\/cureus.16620","article-title":"Encephalopathy in COVID-19 patients","volume":"13","author":"Shah","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"ref85","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2020.00025","article-title":"The role of short-chain fatty acids from gut microbiota in gut-brain communication","volume":"11","author":"Silva","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref86","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0263595","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0263595","article-title":"Prognostic indicators and outcomes of hospitalized COVID-19 patients with neurological disease: an individual patient data meta-analysis","volume":"17","author":"Singh","year":"2022","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"ref87","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"989","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMc2019373","article-title":"Neuropathological features of Covid-19","volume":"383","author":"Solomon","year":"2020","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref88","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"562","DOI":"10.1148\/rg.2017160085","article-title":"Cytotoxic lesions of the Corpus callosum that show restricted diffusion: mechanisms, causes, and manifestations","volume":"37","author":"Starkey","year":"2017","journal-title":"Radiographics"},{"key":"ref89","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-019-2802-2","article-title":"Malaria impact on cognitive function of children in a peri-urban community in the Brazilian Amazon","volume":"18","author":"Tapaj\u00f3s","year":"2019","journal-title":"Malar. J."},{"key":"ref90","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"416","DOI":"10.1016\/S2215-0366(21)00084-5","article-title":"6-month neurological and psychiatric outcomes in 236\u2009379 survivors of COVID-19: a retrospective cohort study using electronic health records","volume":"8","author":"Taquet","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lancet Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref91","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"108125","DOI":"10.1016\/j.intimp.2021.108125","article-title":"Increased LPS levels coexist with systemic inflammation and result in monocyte activation in patients with severe COVID-19","volume":"100","author":"Teixeira","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. Immunopharmacol."},{"key":"ref92","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1380","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neurobiolaging.2007.02.027","article-title":"Interleukin-1 beta impairs brain derived neurotrophic factor-induced signal transduction","volume":"29","author":"Tong","year":"2008","journal-title":"Neurobiol. Aging"},{"key":"ref93","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejcts.2003.11.008","article-title":"Bacterial translocation secondary to small intestinal mucosal ischemia during cardiopulmonary bypass. Measurement by diamine oxidase and peptidoglycan. European journal of cardio-thoracic surgery: official journal of the European Association for Cardio-thoracic","volume":"25","author":"Tsunooka","year":"2004","journal-title":"Surgery"},{"key":"ref94","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100275","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ensci.2020.100275","article-title":"Encephalopathy in COVID-19 patients; viral, parainfectious, or both?","volume":"21","author":"Umapathi","year":"2020","journal-title":"eNS"},{"key":"ref95","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"349","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2014.09.055","article-title":"Functional brain networks contributing to the Parieto-frontal integration theory of intelligence","volume":"103","author":"Vakhtin","year":"2014","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"ref96","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"13113","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-13302-6","article-title":"Lipopolysaccharide enters the rat brain by a lipoprotein-mediated transport mechanism under physiological conditions","volume":"7","author":"Vargas-Caraveo","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref97","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"263310552311725","DOI":"10.1177\/26331055231172522","article-title":"Mechanisms of SARS-CoV-2-induced encephalopathy and encephalitis in COVID-19 cases","volume":"18","author":"Vengalil","year":"2023","journal-title":"Neurosci. Insights"},{"key":"ref99","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1487","DOI":"10.2174\/13816128113199990462","article-title":"Role of monocarboxylate transporters in drug delivery to the brain","volume":"20","author":"Vijay","year":"2014","journal-title":"Curr. Pharm. Des."},{"key":"ref100","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trsl.2020.08.004","article-title":"Gastrointestinal symptoms associated with COVID-19: impact on the gut microbiome","volume":"226","author":"Villapol","year":"2020","journal-title":"Transl. Res."},{"key":"ref101","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"782","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2020.12839","article-title":"Pathophysiology, transmission, diagnosis, and treatment of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19): a review","volume":"324","author":"Wiersinga","year":"2020","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref102","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.1038\/s41522-021-00232-5","article-title":"Altered oral and gut microbiota and its association with SARS-CoV-2 viral load in COVID-19 patients during hospitalization","volume":"7","author":"Wu","year":"2021","journal-title":"NPJ Biofilms Microbiomes"},{"key":"ref103","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2406","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-022-02001-z","article-title":"Long-term neurologic outcomes of COVID-19","volume":"28","author":"Xu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref104","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"175628482110356","DOI":"10.1177\/17562848211035670","article-title":"Probiotics use is associated with improved clinical outcomes among hospitalized patients with COVID-19","volume":"14","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ther. Adv. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref105","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"270","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-020-2012-7","article-title":"A pneumonia outbreak associated with a new coronavirus of probable bat origin","volume":"579","author":"Zhou","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nature"}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Microbiology"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fmicb.2024.1406874\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,28]],"date-time":"2024-05-28T05:28:39Z","timestamp":1716874119000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fmicb.2024.1406874\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,28]]},"references-count":105,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fmicb.2024.1406874"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fmicb.2024.1406874","relation":{},"ISSN":["1664-302X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1664-302X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,28]]},"article-number":"1406874"}}