{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,13]],"date-time":"2026-10-13T22:14:26Z","timestamp":1791929666440,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":44,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,19]],"date-time":"2024-09-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1726704000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Microbiol."],"abstract":"<jats:p>Two physical treatments (heat via water bath and cold air) with various temperatures (20\/70\/75\/80\u00b0C and\u2009\u2212\u200980\/\u221290\u00b0C) and exposure times (20, 30, 40\u2009s) were carried out to identify a decontaminating effect on zoonotic pathogens on broiler carcasses. Subsequently, carcasses were analyzed for thermotolerant <jats:italic>Campylobacter (C.)<\/jats:italic>, <jats:italic>Salmonella<\/jats:italic>, <jats:italic>Escherichia (E.). coli<\/jats:italic> and total colony count (TCC). Moreover, for the hot water treatment, qPCR with viable\/dead differentiation (v-qPCR) was applied to detect viable but non-culturable cells (VBNC) of <jats:italic>Campylobacter,<\/jats:italic> referred to as intact but putatively infectious units (IPIU). Hot water immersion was tested on carcasses inoculated with <jats:italic>C. jejuni<\/jats:italic> and <jats:italic>Salmonella<\/jats:italic>, while cold air treatment was evaluated for naturally contaminated carcasses of broiler flocks colonized with <jats:italic>Campylobacter<\/jats:italic>. For hot water treatment, the statistically significant reducing effect was about 1 log<jats:sub>10<\/jats:sub> CFU\/ml for both <jats:italic>Salmonella<\/jats:italic> and <jats:italic>Campylobacter<\/jats:italic> for 70\u201380\u00b0C and 20\/30\u2009s treatments. The effect of heat treatment for <jats:italic>Campylobacter<\/jats:italic> was smaller when samples were analyzed with v-qPCR with reductions of 0.5\u20130.8 log<jats:sub>10<\/jats:sub> IPIU\/ml in mean. Cold air treatments at \u221290\u00b0C were effective in reducing the mean contamination level of <jats:italic>Campylobacter<\/jats:italic> by 0.4\u20130.5 log<jats:sub>10<\/jats:sub> CFU\/ml at all exposure times (<jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\u2009&amp;lt;\u20090.05). Hot water treatments showed a decreasing trend on TCC by 0.6\u20130.9 log<jats:sub>10<\/jats:sub> CFU\/ml (p\u2009&amp;lt;\u20090.05). TCC counts were not significantly affected by cold air treatment. For <jats:italic>E. coli<\/jats:italic> no statistically significant reductions were observed by hot water treatment. The cold air treatment at \u221290\u00b0C for 20 and 40\u2009s led to a reduction of <jats:italic>E. coli<\/jats:italic> by 0.4 and 0.8 log<jats:sub>10<\/jats:sub> CFU\/ml (<jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\u2009&amp;lt;\u20090.05), respectively. Treatment of carcasses with higher bacterial levels tended to show higher reduction. The research demonstrated that the efficacy of physical treatments for decontamination of broiler carcasses was more pronounced for hot water immersion than for cold air exposure. In conclusion, the results shed light on the potential application of these physical treatments in practice to reduce the quantitative load of contaminating pathogens to enhance food safety in the broiler meat production.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2024.1429756","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,19]],"date-time":"2024-09-19T04:40:11Z","timestamp":1726720811000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["Application of hot water and cold air to reduce bacterial contamination on broiler carcasses"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Anja","family":"Beterams","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alina","family":"Kirse","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lothar","family":"Kreienbrock","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kerstin","family":"Stingl","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Niels","family":"Bandick","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Felix","family":"Reich","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1007\/s12161-010-9142-8","article-title":"Validation of a duplex real-time PCR for the detection of Salmonella spp. in different food products","volume":"4","author":"Anderson","year":"2011","journal-title":"Food Anal Method"},{"key":"ref2","year":"2008"},{"key":"ref3","year":"2013"},{"key":"ref4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.3382\/japr.2010-00178","article-title":"Application of chlorine dioxide to lessen bacterial contamination during broiler defeathering","volume":"20","author":"Berrang","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Appl. Poult. Res."},{"key":"ref5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"110610","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijfoodmicro.2024.110610","article-title":"Status quo: Levels of Campylobacter spp. and hygiene indicators in German slaughterhouses for broiler and turkey","volume":"414","author":"Beterams","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"109337","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodcont.2022.109337","article-title":"Change of Campylobacter, Escherichia coli and Salmonella counts in packaged broiler breast meat stored under modified atmosphere and vacuum conditions at 4 and 10 \u00b0C based on cultural and molecular biological quantification","volume":"145","author":"Beterams","year":"2023","journal-title":"Food Control"},{"key":"ref7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.4315\/0362-028X-72.3.497","article-title":"Reduction of thermotolerant Campylobacter species on broiler carcasses following physical decontamination at slaughter","volume":"72","author":"Boysen","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Food Prot."},{"key":"ref8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodcont.2016.05.041","article-title":"Effect of rapid surface cooling on Campylobacter numbers on poultry carcasses","volume":"70","author":"Burfoot","year":"2016","journal-title":"Food Control"},{"key":"ref9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2874","DOI":"10.3382\/ps.2011-01640","article-title":"Survival of artificially inoculated Escherichia coli and Salmonella Typhimurium on the surface of raw poultry products subjected to crust freezing","volume":"90","author":"Chaves","year":"2011","journal-title":"Poult. Sci."},{"key":"ref10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"913","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jfoodeng.2006.03.018","article-title":"Surface pasteurisation of chicken carcasses using hot water","volume":"79","author":"Corry","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Food Eng."},{"key":"ref11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1111\/1541-4337.12860","article-title":"A systematic review and meta-analysis of the efficacy of processing stages and interventions for controlling Campylobacter contamination during broiler chicken processing","volume":"21","author":"Dogan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Compr. Rev. Food Sci."},{"key":"ref12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijfoodmicro.2014.07.024","article-title":"Quantitative effects of in-line operations on Campylobacter and Escherichia coli through two Australian broiler processing plants","volume":"188","author":"Duffy","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2105","DOI":"10.2903\/j.efsa.2011.2105","article-title":"Scientific Opinion on Campylobacter in broiler meat production: control options and performance objectives and\/or targets at different stages of the food chain","volume":"9","year":"2011","journal-title":"EFSA J."},{"key":"ref14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7666","DOI":"10.2903\/j.efsa.2022.7666","article-title":"The European Union One Health 2021 Zoonoses Report","volume":"20","year":"2021","journal-title":"EFSA J."},{"key":"ref15","year":"2022"},{"key":"ref16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"206","DOI":"10.1111\/lam.12098","article-title":"Freezing as an intervention to reduce the numbers of campylobacters isolated from chicken livers","volume":"57","author":"Harrison","year":"2013","journal-title":"Lett. Appl. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"109873","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodcont.2023.109873","article-title":"Assessment of in-plant decontamination of broiler carcasses by immersion in hot water and lactic acid in Norway","volume":"152","author":"Hauge","year":"2023","journal-title":"Food Control"},{"key":"ref18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"109526","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodcont.2022.109526","article-title":"Assessment of poultry process hygiene and bacterial dynamics along two broiler slaughter lines in Norway","volume":"146","author":"Hauge","year":"2023","journal-title":"Food Control"},{"key":"ref19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fm.2012.05.004","article-title":"Effect of crust freezing applied alone and in combination with ultraviolet light on the survival of Campylobacter on raw chicken","volume":"32","author":"Haughton","year":"2012","journal-title":"Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref20","author":"Herrmann","year":"2017"},{"key":"ref21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1829","DOI":"10.4315\/0362-028x-70.8.1829","article-title":"Effect of dry air or immersion chilling on recovery of bacteria from broiler carcasses","volume":"70","author":"Huezo","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Food Prot."},{"key":"ref22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1696","DOI":"10.4315\/jfp-22-204","article-title":"Quantitative Determination of Campylobacter on broilers along 22 United Kingdom processing lines to identify potential process control points and cross-contamination from colonized to uncolonized flocks","volume":"85","author":"Hutchison","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Food Prot."},{"key":"ref23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijfoodmicro.2006.09.019","article-title":"Decontamination of poultry carcasses using steam or hot water in combination with rapid cooling, chilling or freezing of carcass surfaces","volume":"114","author":"James","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref24","first-page":"30","article-title":"A new chilling technique for processing chicken more safely and efficiently","volume":"18","author":"Kennedy","year":"2004","journal-title":"Food Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"106948","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodcont.2019.106948","article-title":"The effects of a pilot-scale steam decontamination system on the hygiene and sensory quality of chicken carcasses","volume":"109","author":"Kure","year":"2020","journal-title":"Food Control"},{"key":"ref26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"933","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2021.604933","article-title":"Method-dependent implications in foodborne pathogen quantification: The case of Campylobacter coli survival on meat as comparatively assessed by colony count and viability PCR","volume":"12","author":"Lazou","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1371","DOI":"10.1093\/ps\/81.9.1371","article-title":"Effect of high-temperature inside-outside spray on survival of Campylobacter jejuni attached to prechill chicken carcasses","volume":"81","author":"Li","year":"2002","journal-title":"Poult. Sci."},{"key":"ref28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"14251","DOI":"10.1111\/jfpp.14251","article-title":"Processing and retail strategies to minimize Campylobacter contamination in retail chicken","volume":"43","author":"Lu","year":"2019","journal-title":"J Food Proc Pres"},{"key":"ref9001","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1672","DOI":"10.3382\/ps.2008-00061","article-title":"Use of a scald additive to reduce levels of Salmonella Typhimurium during poultry processing","volume":"87","author":"McKee","year":"2008","journal-title":"Poult. Sci."},{"key":"ref29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijfoodmicro.2014.02.001","article-title":"Combined steam and ultrasound treatment of broilers at slaughter: A promising intervention to significantly reduce numbers of naturally occurring campylobacters on carcasses","volume":"176","author":"Musavian","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"107589","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodcont.2020.107589","article-title":"Comparison of four sampling methods for microbiological quantification on broiler carcasses","volume":"121","author":"Nagel Gravning","year":"2021","journal-title":"Food Control"},{"key":"ref31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1648","DOI":"10.1093\/ps\/84.10.1648","article-title":"Microbiological impact of spray washing broiler carcasses using different chlorine concentrations and water temperatures","volume":"84","author":"Northcutt","year":"2005","journal-title":"Poult. Sci."},{"key":"ref32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fm.2018.09.017","article-title":"Internal sample process control improves cultivation-independent quantification of thermotolerant Campylobacter","volume":"78","author":"Pacholewicz","year":"2019","journal-title":"Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijfoodmicro.2015.04.006","article-title":"A comparison of fluctuations of Campylobacter and Escherichia coli concentrations on broiler chicken carcasses during processing in two slaughterhouses","volume":"205","author":"Pacholewicz","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1016\/s0260-8774(03)00168-7","article-title":"The use of 'hot wash' treatments to reduce the number of pathogenic and spoilage bacteria on raw retail poultry","volume":"62","author":"Purnell","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Food Eng."},{"key":"ref35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijfoodmicro.2009.11.013","article-title":"Survival of Campylobacter spp. in poultry meat preparations subjected to freezing, refrigeration, minor salt concentration, and heat treatment","volume":"137","author":"Sampers","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.1016\/0309-1740(93)90076-t","article-title":"Attachment of bacteria to meat surfaces: A review","volume":"34","author":"Selgas","year":"1993","journal-title":"Meat Sci."},{"key":"ref37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"23145","DOI":"10.3390\/ani12223145","article-title":"Effects of hard and soft scalding on defeathering and carcass quality of different breeds of chickens","volume":"12","author":"Shung","year":"2022","journal-title":"Animals (Basel)"},{"key":"ref38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.3382\/ps.2008-00414","article-title":"Sampling method and location affect recovery of coliforms and Escherichia coli from broiler carcasses","volume":"89","author":"Smith","year":"2010","journal-title":"Poult. Sci."},{"key":"ref39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"417","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijfoodmicro.2021.109417","article-title":"Challenging the \u201cgold standard\u201d of colony-forming units - Validation of a multiplex real-time PCR for quantification of viable Campylobacter spp. in meat rinses","volume":"359","author":"Stingl","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"946","DOI":"10.3382\/ps.0530946","article-title":"Effect of hot spray washing on broiler carcass quality","volume":"53","author":"Thomson","year":"1974","journal-title":"Poult. Sci."},{"key":"ref41","first-page":"487","article-title":"Poultry Manufacturing Technologies","volume-title":"Handbook of Food Processing: Food Safety, Quality, and Manufacturing Processes","author":"Varzakas","year":"2016"},{"key":"ref42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1016\/S0740-0020(02)00084-9","article-title":"An assessment of steam pasteurization and hot water immersion treatments for the microbiological decontamination of broiler carcasses","volume":"20","author":"Whyte","year":"2003","journal-title":"Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"706","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens11060706","article-title":"Chicken skin decontamination of thermotolerant Campylobacter spp. and hygiene indicator Escherichia coli assessed by viability real-time PCR","volume":"11","author":"Wulsten","year":"2022","journal-title":"Pathogens"}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Microbiology"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fmicb.2024.1429756\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,19]],"date-time":"2024-09-19T04:40:13Z","timestamp":1726720813000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fmicb.2024.1429756\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,19]]},"references-count":44,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fmicb.2024.1429756"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fmicb.2024.1429756","relation":{},"ISSN":["1664-302X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1664-302X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,19]]},"article-number":"1429756"}}