{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,24]],"date-time":"2026-07-24T23:37:21Z","timestamp":1784936241749,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":56,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,25]],"date-time":"2025-02-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1740441600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Microbiol."],"abstract":"<jats:p>Studies focused on the epidemiological surveillance of arboviruses that cause potentially zoonotic diseases, such as dengue, Zika, or emerging viruses like West Nile virus (WNV), are critical due to their significant impact on public health. Although research on these infectious agents is increasing in Colombia, regions remain where the presence of zoonotic agents is still unknown. To address this knowledge gap, the present study aimed to investigate the current status of WNV circulation in wildlife in two municipalities of the department of Casanare (El Yopal and Paz de Ariporo) from the Colombian region of Orinoquia. Since the arrival of WNV in Colombia, reported in 2004, its detection has typically relied on antibody screening using ELISA. While informative, this technique needs to offer a sufficiently precise time frame to confirm active virus circulation. We employed a molecular approach to overcome this limitation, detecting WNV using qPCR, which provides greater specificity and a narrower time window. A total of 2,553 swab samples were collected from a broad sampling covering 142 birds, 19 mammals, and eight reptile species during 2023 and 2024 across four sampling events conducted during both the dry and wet seasons. The sampling included species with ecological or symbolic value to the region and those with economic importance, such as species used for human consumption (bushmeat). No evidence of WNV was detected in the evaluated species, indicating that these species were not infected with the virus during the sampling periods or that viral loads were below the detection threshold. Our results underscore the importance of further studies, including complementary diagnostic methods, such as antibody detection, to better understand the broader temporal infections and provide a more complete understanding of virus circulation.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2025.1548538","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,25]],"date-time":"2025-02-25T06:54:23Z","timestamp":1740466463000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Survey of West Nile virus infection in wildlife species in the Orinoquia region of Colombia"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Nubia E.","family":"Matta","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Felipe Andr\u00e9s","family":"Gait\u00e1n-Albarrac\u00edn","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gustavo Andr\u00e9s","family":"Fuentes-Rodr\u00edguez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"\u00d3scar Andr\u00e9s","family":"Rodr\u00edguez-Fandi\u00f1o","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Iv\u00e1n F.","family":"Calixto-Bot\u00eda","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lady Johana","family":"Correa-Higuera","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"96","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2018.00096","article-title":"The immune responses of the animal hosts of west nile virus: A comparison of insects, birds, and mammals.","volume":"8","author":"Ahlers","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol."},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100134","DOI":"10.1016\/j.onehlt.2020.100134","article-title":"Evidence of west nile virus infection in migratory and resident wild birds in west coast of Peninsular Malaysia.","volume":"10","author":"Ain-Najwa","year":"2020","journal-title":"One Health"},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1898","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms12091898","article-title":"The alligator and the mosquito: North American crocodilians as amplifiers of west nile virus in changing climates.","volume":"12","author":"Andersen","year":"2024","journal-title":"Microorganisms"},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"495","DOI":"10.1111\/zph.12584","article-title":"Flaviviruses in migratory passerines during spring stopover in a desert oasis.","volume":"66","author":"Ayadi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Zoonoses Public Health"},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0012172","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0012172","article-title":"Ixodes ricinus as potential vector for usutu virus.","volume":"18","author":"Bakker","year":"2024","journal-title":"PLoS Neglected Trop. Dis."},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1102.041028","article-title":"Novel flavivirus or new lineage of west nile virus.","volume":"11","author":"Bakonyi","year":"2005","journal-title":"Central Europe. Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"B7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1252","DOI":"10.21897\/rmvz.1252","article-title":"Vigilancia epidemiol\u00f3gica Al virus del oeste del nilo en municipios del departamento del meta.","volume":"25","author":"Barajas","year":"2020","journal-title":"Revista MVZ C\u00f3rdoba"},{"key":"B8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"747","DOI":"10.1089\/vbz.2018.2324","article-title":"Dengue virus in bats from c\u00f3rdoba and sucre.","volume":"19","author":"Calder\u00f3n","year":"2019","journal-title":"Colombia. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis."},{"key":"B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"381","DOI":"10.1016\/s0042-6822(03)00536-1","article-title":"Evolutionary relationship between old world west nile virus strains. evidence for viral gene flow between Africa, the Middle East, and Europe.","volume":"315","author":"Charrel","year":"2003","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"554","DOI":"10.3390\/insects12060554","article-title":"Serosurvey of nonhuman primates in costa rica at the human\u2013wildlife interface reveals high exposure to flaviviruses.","volume":"12","author":"Chaves","year":"2021","journal-title":"Insects"},{"key":"B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8667","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1506279112","article-title":"Biodiversity inhibits parasites: Broad evidence for the dilution effect.","volume":"112","author":"Civitello","year":"2015","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"896","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens10070896","article-title":"West nile virus in Brazil.","volume":"10","author":"Costa","year":"2021","journal-title":"Pathogens"},{"key":"B13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2090","DOI":"10.3201\/eid3010.240595","article-title":"Evidence of lineage 1 and 3 west nile virus in person with neuroinvasive disease. Nebraska, USA, 2023.","volume":"30","author":"Davis","year":"2024","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.12834\/VetIt.356.1600.2","article-title":"Lack of detection of West Nile Virus in an islander population of chelonians during a West Nile virus outbreak.","volume":"52","author":"Di Girolamo","year":"2016","journal-title":"Vet. Italiana"},{"key":"B15","article-title":"Condiciones Climatol\u00f3gicas Hist\u00f3ricas de La Precipitaci\u00f3n Acumulada. Servicio Climatico Para el Cultivo Del Arroz","year":"2025"},{"key":"B16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"539","DOI":"10.1590\/0037-8682-0485-2016","article-title":"Cacipacore virus as an emergent mosquito-borne flavivirus.","volume":"50","author":"Figueiredo","year":"2017","journal-title":"Rev. Soc. Bras. Med. Trop."},{"key":"B17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"417","DOI":"10.3390\/v15020417","article-title":"Arboviruses in mammals in the neotropics: A systematic review to strengthen epidemiological monitoring strategies and conservation medicine.","volume":"15","author":"Garc\u00eda-Romero","year":"2023","journal-title":"Viruses"},{"key":"B18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"462","DOI":"10.17533\/udea.rccp.324610","article-title":"Antibodies to West nile virus in equines of antioquia and meta, Colombia, 2005-2008.","volume":"23","author":"G\u00f3ez-Rivillas","year":"2010","journal-title":"Rev. Colomb. Ciencias Pecuarias"},{"key":"B19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"198","DOI":"10.3390\/v12020198","article-title":"Mosquito independent transmission of west nile virus in farmed saltwater crocodiles (Crocodylus Porosus).","volume":"12","author":"Habarugira","year":"2020","journal-title":"Viruses"},{"key":"B20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"531","DOI":"10.1177\/0300985818760377","article-title":"West nile virus infection in american singer canaries: An experimental model in a highly susceptible avian species.","volume":"55","author":"Hofmeister","year":"2018","journal-title":"Veterinary Pathol."},{"key":"B21","year":"2023","journal-title":"Reporte de Estado y Tendencias de La Biodiversidad Continental de Colombia 2023."},{"key":"B22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cimid.2016.08.002","article-title":"Serological evidence of widespread west nile virus and Japanese encephalitis virus infection in native domestic ducks (Anas Platyrhynchos Var Domesticus) in kuttanad region, Kerala, India.","volume":"48","author":"Kalaiyarasu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Comp. Immunol. Microbiol. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"B23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"260","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2003.69.260","article-title":"Poor replication of west nile virus (New York 1999 Strain) in three reptilian and one amphibian species.","volume":"69","author":"Klenk","year":"2003","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"B24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2150","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1012.040264","article-title":"Alligators as West Nile virus amplifiers.","volume":"10","author":"Klenk","year":"2004","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"B25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"96","DOI":"10.1006\/viro.2002.1449","article-title":"Complete genome sequences and phylogenetic analysis of West Nile virus strains isolated from the United States, Europe, and the Middle East.","volume":"298","author":"Lanciotti","year":"2002","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"B26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-6632.2011.06431.x","article-title":"Ecology and conservation biology of avian Malaria.","volume":"1249","author":"LaPointe","year":"2012","journal-title":"Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"B27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1458166","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2024.1458166\/full","article-title":"The global incidence and trends of three common flavivirus infections (dengue, yellow fever, and zika) from 2011 to 2021.","volume":"15","author":"Liang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1186\/s12985-015-0310-8","article-title":"Evolutionary relationships of west nile virus detected in mosquitoes from a migratory bird zone of Colombian Caribbean.","volume":"12","author":"L\u00f3pez","year":"2015","journal-title":"Virol. J."},{"key":"B29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100276","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lana.2022.100276","article-title":"Why Are there no human west nile virus outbreaks in South America?\u201d.","volume":"12","author":"Lorenz","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet Regional Health Am."},{"key":"B30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"106972","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actatropica.2023.106972","article-title":"Employing oxford nanopore technologies (ONT) for understanding the ecology and transmission dynamics of flaviviruses in mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) from Eastern Colombia.","volume":"245","author":"Mart\u00ednez","year":"2023","journal-title":"Acta Tropica"},{"key":"B31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e180332","DOI":"10.1590\/0074-02760180332","article-title":"First isolation of West Nile virus in Brazil.","volume":"114","author":"Martins","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mem. Instituto Oswaldo Cruz"},{"key":"B32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1497","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1109.050426","article-title":"West Nile Virus antibodies in Colombian horses.","volume":"11","author":"Mattar","year":"2005","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"B33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"976","DOI":"10.1590\/s0074-02762011000800012","article-title":"Seroconversion for West Nile and St. Louis encephalitis viruses among sentinel horses in Colombia.","volume":"106","author":"Mattar","year":"2011","journal-title":"Mem. Instituto Oswaldo Cruz."},{"key":"B34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s12985-018-1108-2","article-title":"First report of culex Flavivirus infection from culex coronator (Diptera: Culicidae), Colombia.","volume":"16","author":"Miranda","year":"2019","journal-title":"Virol. J."},{"key":"B35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1126199","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2023.1126199","article-title":"Serological and molecular surveillance of West Nile Virus in domesticated mammals of Peninsular Malaysia.","volume":"10","author":"Mohammed","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front. Vet. Sci."},{"key":"B36","first-page":"31","article-title":"Panorama de La investigaci\u00f3n en producci\u00f3n animal Desde La perspectiva Del entorno socioecon\u00f3mico y cultural En La Regi\u00f3n de Los {Llanos} {Orientales} y El {Casanare}.","volume":"4","author":"Molina","year":"2011","journal-title":"Gesti\u00f3n Soc."},{"key":"B37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1559","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1210.060852","article-title":"West Nile virus isolation from equines in Argentina, 2006.","volume":"12","author":"Morales","year":"2006","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"B38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"565","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2012.11-0655","article-title":"Characterization of West Nile viruses isolated from captive American flamingoes (Phoenicopterus Ruber) in medellin, Colombia.","volume":"87","author":"Osorio","year":"2012","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"B39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e2706","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0002706","article-title":"Serological evidence of widespread circulation of West Nile Virus and other flaviviruses in equines of the Pantanal, Brazil.","volume":"8","author":"Pauvolid-Corr\u00eaa","year":"2014","journal-title":"PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis."},{"key":"B40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"224","DOI":"10.1007\/s00705-023-05835-1","article-title":"Renaming of the genus flavivirus to Orthoflavivirus and extension of binomial species names within the family Flaviviridae.","volume":"168","author":"Postler","year":"2023","journal-title":"Arch. Virol."},{"key":"B41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0009028","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0009028","article-title":"Multiplex detection of antibodies to Chikungunya, O\u2019nyong-Nyong, Zika, Dengue, West Nile and usutu viruses in diverse nonhuman primate species from cameroon and the democratic republic of Congo.","volume":"15","author":"Raulino","year":"2021","journal-title":"PLoS Neglected Trop. Dis."},{"key":"B42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0006224","DOI":"10.1128\/msphere.00062-24","article-title":"Evaluation of vector susceptibility in aedes aegypti and culex pipiens pallens to tibet orbivirus.","volume":"9","author":"Ren","year":"2024","journal-title":"mSphere"},{"key":"B43","first-page":"21135","article-title":"The challenge of West Nile virus in Europe: Knowledge gaps and research priorities.","volume":"20","author":"Rizzoli","year":"2015","journal-title":"Euro Surveill. Eur. Communicable Dis. Bull."},{"key":"B44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"735","DOI":"10.1007\/s00705-012-1516-3","article-title":"West Nile virus associations in wild mammals: A synthesis.","volume":"158","author":"Root","year":"2013","journal-title":"Arch. Virol."},{"key":"B45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102591","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tmaid.2023.102591","article-title":"Multiple introductions of highly pathogenic avian influenza H5N1 Clade 2.3.4.4b into South America.","volume":"53","author":"Ruiz-Saenz","year":"2023","journal-title":"Travel Med. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"B46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1145","DOI":"10.1080\/21505594.2021.1908740","article-title":"Pathogenicity and virulence of West Nile virus revisited eight decades after its first isolation.","volume":"12","author":"Saiz","year":"2021","journal-title":"Virulence"},{"key":"B47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"733","DOI":"10.1586\/14737159.3.6.733","article-title":"Serologic diagnosis of West Nile virus infection.","volume":"3","author":"Shi","year":"2003","journal-title":"Exp. Rev. Mol. Diagnostics"},{"key":"B48","author":"Smithburn","year":"1940","journal-title":"A Neurotropic Virus Isolated from the Blood of a Native of Uganda."},{"key":"B49","first-page":"14","article-title":"Evaluaci\u00f3n del virus del oeste del nilo en aves silvestres de una isla del caribe colombiano: Evaluation of west nile virus in wild birds on an Island in the Colombian Caribbean.","author":"Soler-Tovar","year":"2011","journal-title":"Ornitol. Colombiana"},{"key":"B50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0301956","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0301956","article-title":"Characterization of West Nile virus koutango lineage from phlebotomine sandflies in Kenya.","volume":"19","author":"Thiiru","year":"2024","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"B51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1957","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms9091957","article-title":"Survey on the presence of viruses of economic and zoonotic importance in Avifauna in Northern Italy.","volume":"9","author":"Trogu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Microorganisms"},{"key":"B52","year":"2021","journal-title":"Can Hunters Get West Nile Virus from Eating Infected Game Birds?."},{"key":"B53","author":"Usma Oviedo","year":"2011","journal-title":"Biodiversidad Del Departamento de Casanare: Identificaci\u00f3n de Ecosistemas Estrat\u00e9gicos."},{"key":"B54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"266","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jviromet.2016.07.026","article-title":"Real time PCR assay for detection of all known lineages of West Nile virus.","volume":"236","author":"V\u00e1zquez","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Virol. Methods"},{"key":"B55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"549","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1603.091033","article-title":"Putative new lineage of West Nile Virus, Spain.","volume":"16","author":"Vazquez","year":"2010","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"B56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100234","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vas.2022.100234","article-title":"18S ribosomal DNA-based PCR test for avian and mammalian DNA identification in meat products","volume":"15","author":"Zyrianova","year":"2022","journal-title":"Vet. Anim. Sci"}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Microbiology"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fmicb.2025.1548538\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,25]],"date-time":"2025-02-25T06:54:31Z","timestamp":1740466471000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fmicb.2025.1548538\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,25]]},"references-count":56,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fmicb.2025.1548538"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fmicb.2025.1548538","relation":{},"ISSN":["1664-302X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1664-302X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,25]]},"article-number":"1548538"}}