{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,6]],"date-time":"2026-10-06T06:07:09Z","timestamp":1791266829783,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":82,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,22]],"date-time":"2025-08-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1755820800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004360","name":"Sveriges Lantbruksuniversitet","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004360","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Microbiol."],"abstract":"<jats:p>The coexistence of pharmaceuticals and microorganisms in source separated urine poses a risk for the development of antimicrobial resistance (AMR), especially when urine-based fertilizers are applied to soils. While prior studies have investigated pathogen inactivation in source-separated wastewater matrices, few have evaluated the simultaneous fate of antibiotic-resistant bacteria (ARBs) and their corresponding resistance genes (ARGs) in real urine matrices, particularly under alkaline conditions. Here, we studied the inactivation of \u03b2-lactamase-producing <jats:italic>Escherichia coli<\/jats:italic> and vancomycin-resistant <jats:italic>Enterococcus faecium<\/jats:italic> and the degradation of their respective ARGs (<jats:italic>bla<\/jats:italic><jats:sub>CTX \u2212 M<\/jats:sub> and <jats:italic>van-<\/jats:italic>A) in alkalized, unhydrolyzed urine (pH 10.8 and 12.5) treated with UV (65 W low pressure dichromatic mercury lamp at 185\/254 nm), hydrogen peroxide (1.25 g L<jats:sup>\u22121<\/jats:sup> H<jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>O<jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>), and their combination (UV\/H<jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>O<jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>). UV\/H<jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>O<jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub> treatment resulted in &amp;gt;7 log<jats:sub>10<\/jats:sub> inactivation of both ARBs, with inactivation rate constants of \u22120.058 log<jats:sub>10<\/jats:sub> cfu min<jats:sup>\u22121<\/jats:sup> (<jats:italic>E. coli<\/jats:italic>, UV) and \u22120.093 log<jats:sub>10<\/jats:sub> cfu min<jats:sup>\u22121<\/jats:sup> (<jats:italic>E. faecium<\/jats:italic>, UV\/H<jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>O<jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>). In contrast, ARG reduction was limited with UV alone and negligible with H<jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>O<jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub> alone. Gene copy reductions of 3 log10 (<jats:italic>bla<\/jats:italic><jats:sub>CTX \u2212 M<\/jats:sub>, <jats:italic>k<\/jats:italic> = \u22120.055 log10 copies min<jats:sup>\u22121<\/jats:sup>) and 2 log10 (<jats:italic>van-<\/jats:italic>A, <jats:italic>k<\/jats:italic> = \u22120.040 log10 copies min<jats:sup>\u22121<\/jats:sup>) were observed under UV\/H<jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>O<jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>. Notably, brief storage (&amp;gt;3 h) at pH 12.5 achieved similar ARB inactivation and ARG reduction as 80 min of UV\/H<jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>O<jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub> treatment at pH 10.8, offering a low-energy alternative for sanitizing source-separated urine.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2025.1605625","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,22]],"date-time":"2025-08-22T05:28:07Z","timestamp":1755840487000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Simultaneous inactivation of antibiotic-resistant bacteria and degradation of antibiotic-resistant genes in alkalised human urine"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Natnael","family":"Demissie","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Annika","family":"Nordin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Prithvi","family":"Simha","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Isis","family":"Conroy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"He","family":"Sun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anna","family":"Schn\u00fcrer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bj\u00f6rn","family":"Vinner\u00e5s","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Adey","family":"Desta","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"D690","DOI":"10.1093\/nar\/gkac920","article-title":"CARD 2023: expanded curation, support for machine learning, and resistome prediction at the comprehensive antibiotic resistance database","volume":"51","author":"Alcock","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nucleic Acids Res."},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1642","DOI":"10.1021\/acsestengg.1c00194","article-title":"Stabilization of urea for recovery from source-separated urine using electrochemically synthesized hydrogen peroxide","volume":"1","author":"Arve","year":"2021","journal-title":"ACS EST Eng."},{"key":"B3","first-page":"22","article-title":"Evaluation of the efficacy of a new secondary disinfectant formulation using hydrogen peroxide and silver and the formulation of disinfection by-products resulting from interactions with conventional disinfectants","author":"Batterman","year":"2001","journal-title":"US EPA Res. 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