{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,22]],"date-time":"2026-10-22T17:52:52Z","timestamp":1792691572048,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":33,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,1]],"date-time":"2025-09-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1756684800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Microbiol."],"abstract":"<jats:p>Studies of antimicrobial therapeutics have traditionally neglected the contribution of the host in determining the course of treatment and its outcome. One critical host element, which shapes the dynamics of treatment is the innate immune system. Studies of chemotherapeutics and complementary therapies such as bacteriophage (phage), are commonly performed with mice that purposely have an ablated innate immune system. Here, we generate a mathematical and computer-simulation model of the joint action of antibiotics, phage, and phagocytes. Our analysis of this model highlights the need for future studies to consider the role of the host's innate immune system in determining treatment outcomes. Critically, our model predicts that the conditions under which resistance to the treatment agent(s) will emerge are much narrower than commonly anticipate. We also generate a second model to predict the dynamics of treatment when multiple phages are used. This model provides support for the application of cocktails to treat infections rather than individual phages. Overall, this study provides hypotheses that can readily be tested experimentally with both <jats:italic>in vitro<\/jats:italic> and <jats:italic>in vivo<\/jats:italic> experiments.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2025.1632267","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,1]],"date-time":"2025-09-01T05:29:36Z","timestamp":1756704576000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["The joint action of antibiotics, bacteriophage, and the innate immune response in the treatment of bacterial infections"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Brandon A.","family":"Berryhill","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Teresa","family":"Gil-Gil","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bruce R.","family":"Levin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1019","DOI":"10.3390\/ph14101019","article-title":"Phage cocktail development for bacteriophage therapy: toward improving spectrum of activity breadth and depth","volume":"14","author":"Abedon","year":"2021","journal-title":"Pharmaceuticals"},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e59015","DOI":"10.3791\/59015","article-title":"A mouse model to assess innate immune response to Staphylococcus aureus infection","volume":"144","author":"Anderson","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. 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