{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,19]],"date-time":"2026-10-19T11:41:42Z","timestamp":1792410102779,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":98,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,28]],"date-time":"2025-10-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1761609600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Microbiol."],"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Water is an important vehicle for transmitting pathogens that can cause waterborne diseases. Depending on environmental conditions, pathogenic microorganisms present in water can survive and persist for varying durations. A systematic understanding of pathogen survival and persistence under diverse environmental conditions is important for assessing water safety and guiding treatment requirements.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>A systematic search of PubMed, Web of Science, Google Scholar, and Scopus databases was conducted to identify studies published from January 1, 1990, to July 17, 2024. Studies were included and analysed if they provided quantitative data on the survival or persistence of bacteria, viruses, parasites, or fungi in different water sources, under varying environmental conditions such as temperature and pH. The PRISMA guidelines were followed, and the risk of bias in each study was evaluated using the Cochrane ROB2 tool.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Of 2,048 initial records, 58 studies met inclusion criteria. Bacteria were the most studied group, with a mean survival of 28 days and persistence up to 621 days, especially at lower temperatures and in freshwater.\n                      <jats:italic>E. coli<\/jats:italic>\n                      O157:H7 and Salmonella spp. were the most studied bacteria, persisting for weeks to months in both freshwater and biofilms. Viruses averaged 22 days of survival but could persist up to 1,095 days; Human Adenovirus and Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus were the most frequently studied viral pathogens, while Human Norovirus survived over 70 days in surface water at 37\u00b0C. Viral viability decreased significantly at extreme pH levels. Parasites\/protozoans, such as\n                      <jats:italic>Cryptosporidium parvum<\/jats:italic>\n                      and\n                      <jats:italic>Giardia lamblia<\/jats:italic>\n                      only showed survival duration, averaged 30 days survival, enduring extreme conditions and often benefiting from biofilm association. Fungi, though less studied, are emerging waterborne pathogens, with\n                      <jats:italic>Candida auris<\/jats:italic>\n                      surviving up to 30 days in water. Lower temperatures, neutral to slightly alkaline pH, and biofilms significantly enhanced pathogen persistence, even in treated water systems.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Pathogenic microorganisms can survive and persist in diverse water environments for extended periods, posing ongoing risks for waterborne disease transmission and highlighting limitations in current water treatment strategies. Strengthening surveillance and disinfection protocols, prioritizing biofilm management strategies, and predictive modeling to enhance waterborne disease prevention and inform public health policies globally.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2025.1654785","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,28]],"date-time":"2025-10-28T06:24:27Z","timestamp":1761632667000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":24,"title":["How long do pathogens persist and survive in water? A systematic review"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Famous K.","family":"Sosah","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alex","family":"Odoom","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Isaac","family":"Anim-Baidoo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Eric S.","family":"Donkor","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"141475","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2020.141475","article-title":"Comparative decay of culturable faecal indicator bacteria, microbial source tracking marker genes, and enteric pathogens in laboratory microcosms that mimic a sub-tropical environment.","volume":"751","author":"Ahmed","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100096","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jfp.2023.100096","article-title":"Survival of inoculated Vibrio spp., shigatoxigenic Escherichia coli, Listeria monocytogenes, and Salmonella spp. on seaweed (Sugar Kelp) during storage.","volume":"86","author":"Akomea-Frempong","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Food Protection"},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1186\/s13028-020-00553-z","article-title":"Temperature and light effects on Trichobilharzia szidati cercariae with implications for a risk analysis.","volume":"62","author":"Al-Jubury","year":"2020","journal-title":"Acta Veterinaria Scand."},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2248","DOI":"10.4315\/0362-028X-69.9.2248","article-title":"Inactivation of Escherichia coli O157:H7 in cattle drinking water by sodium caprylate.","volume":"69","author":"Amalaradjou","year":"2006","journal-title":"J., Food Protection"},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5536","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.00657-12","article-title":"Pathogenic Escherichia coli Found in sewage treatment plants and environmental waters.","volume":"78","author":"Anastasi","year":"2012","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.2147\/OAEM.S11862","article-title":"Antimicrobial prophylaxis in open lower extremity fractures.","volume":"3","author":"Anderson","year":"2011","journal-title":"Open Access Emerg. Med."},{"key":"B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1080\/00362177985380031","article-title":"In vitro survival of human pathogenic fungi in seawater.","volume":"17","author":"Anderson","year":"1979","journal-title":"Sabouraudia"},{"key":"B8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"378","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2007.08.049","article-title":"Survival of Escherichia coli O157:H7 in waters from lakes, rivers, puddles and animal-drinking troughs.","volume":"389","author":"Avery","year":"2008","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"913","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms12050913","article-title":"Factors influencing microbial contamination of groundwater: A systematic review of field-scale studies.","volume":"12","author":"Bagordo","year":"2024","journal-title":"Microorganisms"},{"key":"B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"13308","DOI":"10.1111\/1758-2229.13308","article-title":"Exploring plastic biofilm formation and Escherichia coli colonisation in marine environments.","volume":"16","author":"Ballest\u00e9","year":"2024","journal-title":"Environ. Microbiol. Rep."},{"key":"B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"418","DOI":"10.2166\/wh.2017.161","article-title":"Application of long amplicon propidium monoazide-PCR to assess the effects of temperature and background microbiota on pathogens in river water.","volume":"15","author":"Banihashemi","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Water Health"},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1763","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.01756-10","article-title":"Persistence of free-living protozoan communities across rearing cycles in commercial poultry houses.","volume":"77","author":"Bar\u00e9","year":"2011","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"B13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"508","DOI":"10.1007\/s10661-021-09303-8","article-title":"Coronavirus: Occurrence, surveillance, and persistence in wastewater.","volume":"193","author":"Basavaraju","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Monit. Assess."},{"key":"B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph2007010009","article-title":"Class B alkaline stabilization to achieve pathogen inactivation.","volume":"4","author":"Bean","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health"},{"key":"B15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3515","DOI":"10.2166\/ws.2021.116","article-title":"Survival of animal and human-associated Listeria monocytogenes in drinking water and biofilms.","volume":"21","author":"Bjergb\u00e6k","year":"2021","journal-title":"Water Supply"},{"key":"B16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0304378","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0304378","article-title":"Disinfection of sink drains to reduce a source of three opportunistic pathogens, during Serratia marcescens clusters in a neonatal intensive care unit.","volume":"19","author":"Bourdin","year":"2024","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"B17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"421","DOI":"10.2134\/jeq2013.05.0212","article-title":"Modeling microorganism transport and survival in the subsurface.","volume":"43","author":"Bradford","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Environ. Quality"},{"key":"B18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0002756","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0002756","article-title":"Mycobacterium ulcerans persistence at a village water source of buruli ulcer patients.","volume":"8","author":"Bratschi","year":"2014","journal-title":"PLoS Neglected Trop. Dis."},{"key":"B19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"733","DOI":"10.1128\/aem.64.2.733-741.1998","article-title":"Extended survival and persistence of Campylobacter spp. water and aquatic biofilms and their detection by immunofluorescent-antibody and -rRNA staining.","volume":"64","author":"Buswell","year":"1998","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"B20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"507","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.00507-18","article-title":"Quantification of Leptospira interrogans survival in soil and water microcosms.","volume":"84","author":"Casanovas-Massana","year":"2018","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"B21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1016\/j.micpath.2016.11.004","article-title":"Adhesion, invasion, cytotoxic effect and cytokine production in response to atypical Salmonella Typhimurium infection.","volume":"106","author":"Chakroun","year":"2017","journal-title":"Microbial Pathogen."},{"key":"B22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0320680","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0320680","article-title":"A qPCR assay for the detection of Phytophthora abietivora, an emerging pathogen on fir species cultivated as Christmas trees.","volume":"20","author":"Charron","year":"2025","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"B23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"140","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2701.190676","article-title":"Estimate of burden and direct healthcare cost of infectious waterborne disease in the United States.","volume":"27","author":"Collier","year":"2021","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"B24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1844","DOI":"10.1128\/spectrum.01844-23","article-title":"Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus, surrogate for coronavirus decay measurement in French coastal waters and contribution to coronavirus risk evaluation.","volume":"11","author":"Contrant","year":"2023","journal-title":"Microbiol. Spectrum"},{"key":"B25","year":"2022","journal-title":"Zotero | Your personal research assistant."},{"key":"B26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"fiv005","DOI":"10.1093\/femsec\/fiv005","article-title":"Effects of transparent exopolymer particles and suspended particles on the survival of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium in seawater.","volume":"91","author":"Davidson","year":"2015","journal-title":"FEMS Microbiol. Ecol."},{"key":"B27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1370","DOI":"10.2166\/wst.2018.409","article-title":"Survival of ESKAPE pathogen Acinetobacter baumannii in water of different temperatures and pH.","volume":"78","author":"Dekic","year":"2018","journal-title":"Water Sci. Technol."},{"key":"B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1439-0507.2003.00860.x","article-title":"The maintenance and preservation of keratinophilic fungi and related dermatophytes.","volume":"46","author":"Deshmukh","year":"2003","journal-title":"Mycoses"},{"key":"B29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.2166\/wst.1989.0013","article-title":"Some environmental factors affecting survival of fecal pathogens and indicator organisms in seawater.","volume":"21","author":"El-Sharkawi","year":"1989","journal-title":"Water Sci. Technol."},{"key":"B30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100072","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heha.2023.100072","article-title":"Persistence of MRSA and ESBL-producing E. coli and K. oxytoca in river water.","volume":"7","author":"Essert","year":"2023","journal-title":"Hygiene Environ. Health Adv."},{"key":"B31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"352","DOI":"10.1159\/000249959","article-title":"[How long do dermatophytes survive in the water of indoor pools?].","volume":"165","author":"Fischer","year":"1982","journal-title":"Dermatologica"},{"key":"B32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"715","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.01316-09","article-title":"Quantitative detection of human adenoviruses in wastewater and combined sewer overflows influencing a michigan river.","volume":"76","author":"Fong","year":"2010","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"B33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"458","DOI":"10.2166\/wh.2011.173","article-title":"Recovery of Salmonella from biofilms in a headwater spring ecosystem.","volume":"9","author":"Gaertner","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Water Health"},{"key":"B34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.18051\/UnivMed.2024.v43.102-113","article-title":"Emerging and reemerging human fungal pathogens that affect people with weakened immune systems: A systematic review.","volume":"43","author":"Genet","year":"2024","journal-title":"Universa Med"},{"key":"B35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e00205-22","DOI":"10.1128\/mmbr.00205-22","article-title":"Mechanisms of action of microbicides commonly used in infection prevention and control.","volume":"88","author":"Gerba","year":"2024","journal-title":"Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev."},{"key":"B36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5898","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.00827-08","article-title":"Persistence of Helicobacter pylori in heterotrophic drinking-water biofilms.","volume":"74","author":"Gi\u00e3o","year":"2008","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"B37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.02713-20","article-title":"Long-term survival of virulent tularemia pathogens outside a host in conditions that mimic natural aquatic environments.","volume":"87","author":"Golovliov","year":"2021","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"B38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3430","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.04195-14","article-title":"Genes indicative of zoonotic and swine pathogens are persistent in stream water and sediment following a swine manure spill.","volume":"81","author":"Haack","year":"2015","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"B39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"540","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolind.2008.08.001","article-title":"Distribution and survival of faecal indicator bacteria in the sediments of the Bay of Vidy, Lake Geneva, Switzerland.","volume":"9","author":"Haller","year":"2009","journal-title":"Ecol. Indicators"},{"key":"B40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2079","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.02495-07","article-title":"Interactions of Cryptosporidium parvum, Giardia lamblia, vaccinal poliovirus type 1, and bacteriophages \u03c6X174 and MS2 with a drinking water biofilm and a wastewater biofilm.","volume":"74","author":"Helmi","year":"2008","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"B41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5864","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.00759-06","article-title":"Persistence of nontuberculous mycobacteria in a drinking water system after addition of filtration treatment.","volume":"72","author":"Hilborn","year":"2006","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"B42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"30195","DOI":"10.2807\/1560-7917.ES.2016.21.15.30195","article-title":"Carbapenem-resistant isolates of Acinetobacter baumannii in a municipal wastewater treatment plant, Croatia, 2014.","volume":"21","author":"Hrenovic","year":"2016","journal-title":"Eurosurveillance"},{"key":"B43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4005","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.00649-15","article-title":"Interactions between human norovirus surrogates and Acanthamoeba spp.","volume":"81","author":"Hsueh","year":"2015","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"B44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7132","DOI":"10.1021\/es060892o","article-title":"Human adenoviruses in water: occurrence and health implications: A critical review.","volume":"40","author":"Jiang","year":"2006","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"B45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"922","DOI":"10.3201\/eid0908.030145","article-title":"Survival of Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in water: Quarantine and disease control implications.","volume":"9","author":"Johnson","year":"2003","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"B46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"524","DOI":"10.7589\/JWD-D-21-00117","article-title":"Source and seasonality of epizootic mycoplasmosis in free-ranging pronghorn (Antilocapra Americana).","volume":"58","author":"Johnson","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Wildlife Dis."},{"key":"B47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"875","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2018.05.037","article-title":"Persistence of bacterial pathogens, antibiotic resistance genes, and enterococci in tidal creek tributaries.","volume":"240","author":"Jones","year":"2018","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"B48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"408","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms8030408","article-title":"Fate and biofilm formation of wild-type and pressure- stressed pathogens of public health concern in surface water and on abiotic surfaces.","volume":"8","author":"Kabir","year":"2020","journal-title":"Microorganisms"},{"key":"B49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.2166\/wst.2004.0393","article-title":"Re-use of wastewater: Preventing the recovery of pathogens by using medium-pressure UV lamp technology.","volume":"50","author":"Kalisvaart","year":"2004","journal-title":"Water Sci. Technol."},{"key":"B50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3671","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.2c09637","article-title":"Persistence of human norovirus (GII) in surface water: Decay rate constants and inactivation mechanisms.","volume":"57","author":"Kennedy","year":"2023","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"B51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2067","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1012.040707","article-title":"Wildlife as source of zoonotic infections.","volume":"10","author":"Kruse","year":"2004","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"B52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.ss7301a1","article-title":"Surveillance of waterborne disease outbreaks associated with drinking water - United States, 2015-2020. Morbidity and mortality weekly report.","volume":"73","author":"Kunz","year":"2024","journal-title":"Surveillance Summaries"},{"key":"B53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1496","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2018.01496","article-title":"Influenza virus segment composition influences viral stability in the environment.","volume":"9","author":"Labadie","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"B54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2018.00159","article-title":"Presence and persistence of Salmonella in water: The impact on microbial quality of water and food safety.","volume":"6","author":"Liu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Public Health"},{"key":"B55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2072","DOI":"10.3390\/foods10092072","article-title":"Survival of Escherichia coli and Listeria innocua on lettuce after irrigation with contaminated water in a temperate climate.","volume":"10","author":"Machado-Moreira","year":"2021","journal-title":"Foods"},{"key":"B56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-1694(00)00324-3","article-title":"Transport of free and particulate-associated bacteria in karst.","volume":"238","author":"Mahler","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"B57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2145","DOI":"10.1039\/C4EM00031E","article-title":"The interaction of human microbial pathogens, particulate material and nutrients in estuarine environments and their impacts on recreational and shellfish waters.","volume":"16","author":"Malham","year":"2014","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Processes Impacts"},{"key":"B58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"623","DOI":"10.1016\/j.watres.2017.07.017","article-title":"Microcosms for evaluating microbial indicator persistence and mobilization in fluvial sediments during rainfall events.","volume":"123","author":"Mart\u00edn-D\u00edaz","year":"2017","journal-title":"Water Res."},{"key":"B59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1002\/jrsm.1411","article-title":"Risk-of-bias VISualization (robvis): An R package and Shiny web app for visualizing risk-of-bias assessments.","volume":"12","author":"McGuinness","year":"2020","journal-title":"Res., Synthesis Methods"},{"key":"B60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3379","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.02302-08","article-title":"Quantification of human polyomaviruses JC virus and BK Virus by TaqMan quantitative PCR and comparison to other water quality indicators in water and fecal samples.","volume":"75","author":"McQuaig","year":"2009","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"B61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"120955","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2022.120955","article-title":"From wastewater discharge to the beach: Survival of human pathogens bound to microplastics during transfer through the freshwater-marine continuum.","volume":"319","author":"Metcalf","year":"2023","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"B62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.4103\/ijcm.ijcm_607_21","article-title":"Assessing waterborne disease vulnerabilities in the blocks of Kalahandi District of Odisha, India.","volume":"47","author":"Mishra","year":"2022","journal-title":"Indian J. Community Med."},{"key":"B63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"106269","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mimet.2021.106269","article-title":"A review on application of next-generation sequencing methods for profiling of protozoan parasites in water: Current methodologies, challenges, and perspectives.","volume":"187","author":"Mthethwa","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Microbiol. Methods"},{"key":"B64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4616","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.00444-15","article-title":"LA35 poultry fecal marker persistence is correlated with that of indicators and pathogens in environmental waters.","volume":"81","author":"Nayak","year":"2015","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"B65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.3390\/atmos9100385","article-title":"Climate change and water-related infectious diseases.","volume":"9","author":"Nichols","year":"2018","journal-title":"Atmosphere"},{"key":"B66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"210","DOI":"10.1186\/s13643-016-0384-4","article-title":"Rayyan, a web and mobile app for systematic reviews.","volume":"5","author":"Ouzzani","year":"2016","journal-title":"Syst. Rev."},{"key":"B67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"n71","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.n71","article-title":"The PRISMA 2020 statement: An updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews.","volume":"372","author":"Page","year":"2021","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"B68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"160902","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2022.160902","article-title":"Persistence of low pathogenic avian influenza virus in artificial streams mimicking natural conditions of waterfowl habitats in the Mediterranean climate.","volume":"863","author":"Perlas","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"B69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"711","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.02193-08","article-title":"Energy metabolism response to low-temperature and frozen conditions in Psychrobacter cryohalolentis.","volume":"75","author":"Pierre","year":"2009","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"B70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"E486","DOI":"10.5942\/JAWWA.2015.107.0130","article-title":"Occurrence and control of tularemia in drinking water.","volume":"107","author":"Rice","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Am. Water Works Assoc."},{"key":"B71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7455","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.01594-12","article-title":"Predatory bacteria as natural modulators of Vibrio parahaemolyticus and Vibrio vulnificus in seawater and oysters.","volume":"78","author":"Richards","year":"2012","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"B72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.47489\/szmc.v37i2.373","article-title":"RT-qPCR protocol optimization assessment with propidium monoazide for viable and non-viable pathogen detection.","volume":"37","author":"Sajid","year":"2023","journal-title":"Proceedings"},{"key":"B73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0275482","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0275482","article-title":"Persistence of surrogates for high consequence viral and bacterial pathogens in a pilot-scale activated sludge treatment system.","volume":"17","author":"Schupp","year":"2022","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"B74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.4315\/0362-028X-69.1.6","article-title":"A comparison of the survival in feces and water of Escherichia coli O157:H7 grown under laboratory conditions or obtained from cattle feces.","volume":"69","author":"Scott","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Food Protection"},{"key":"B75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1636","DOI":"10.3390\/v16101636","article-title":"Effects of alkaline solutions on the structure and function of influenza a virus.","volume":"16","author":"Seguchi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Viruses"},{"key":"B76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6884","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.05806-11","article-title":"Norovirus infectivity in humans and persistence in water.","volume":"77","author":"Seitz Scot","year":"2011","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"B77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"678","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijheh.2019.04.007","article-title":"Long-term persistence of infectious Legionella with free-living amoebae in drinking water biofilms.","volume":"222","author":"Shaheen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Hygiene Environ. Health"},{"key":"B78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1186\/s42269-023-01088-9","article-title":"Severity of waterborne diseases in developing countries and the effectiveness of ceramic filters for improving water quality.","volume":"47","author":"Shayo","year":"2023","journal-title":"Bull. Natl. Res. Centre"},{"key":"B79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"773","DOI":"10.2166\/wh.2015.157","article-title":"Survival dynamics of cystic fibrosis-related gram-negative bacterial pathogens (Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Burkholderia cenocepacia) in Dead Sea and Atlantic Ocean waters.","volume":"13","author":"Shteinberg","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Water Health"},{"key":"B80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-animal-022114-111017","article-title":"Environmental role in influenza virus outbreaks.","volume":"3","author":"Sooryanarain","year":"2015","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Anim. Biosci."},{"key":"B81","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"108554","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2019.108554","article-title":"Environmental persistence and disinfectant susceptibility of Klebsiella pneumoniae recovered from pinnipeds stranded on the California Coast.","volume":"241","author":"Soto","year":"2020","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"B82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"l4898","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.l4898","article-title":"RoB 2: A revised tool for assessing risk of bias in randomised trials.","volume":"366","author":"Sterne","year":"2019","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"B83","first-page":"70","author":"Toze","year":"2003","journal-title":"Pathogen survival in groundwater during artificial recharge."},{"key":"B84","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"9542","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph120809542","article-title":"Solar-enhanced advanced oxidation processes for water treatment: Simultaneous removal of pathogens and chemical pollutants.","volume":"12","author":"Tsydenova","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health"},{"key":"B85","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"236","DOI":"10.3390\/vetsci10030236","article-title":"Persistence of a wild-type virulent Aeromonas hydrophila isolate in pond sediments from commercial catfish ponds: A laboratory study.","volume":"10","author":"Tuttle","year":"2023","journal-title":"Vet. Sci."},{"key":"B86","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"796","DOI":"10.3390\/jof7100796","article-title":"The survival and treatment of Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense in Water.","volume":"7","author":"Ullah","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Fungi"},{"key":"B87","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"115672","DOI":"10.1016\/j.watres.2020.115672","article-title":"Microbial quality of surface water and subsurface soil after wildfire.","volume":"175","author":"Valenca","year":"2020","journal-title":"Water Res."},{"key":"B88","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"10105","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph111010105","article-title":"Enteric pathogen survival varies substantially in irrigation water from belgian lettuce producers.","volume":"11","author":"Van Der Linden","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health"},{"key":"B89","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1438","DOI":"10.4315\/0362-028X-69.6.1438","article-title":"Role of the rpoS gene in the survival of Vibrio parahaemolyticus in artificial seawater and fish homogenate.","volume":"69","author":"Vasudevan","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Food Protection"},{"key":"B90","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1186\/s13568-018-0626-z","article-title":"Particle attached and free floating pathogens survival kinetics under typical stream and thermal spring temperature conditions.","volume":"8","author":"Wang","year":"2018","journal-title":"AMB Express"},{"key":"B91","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1574-6941.2006.00273.x","article-title":"Persistence, dissipation, and activity of Escherichia coli O157:H7 within sand and seawater environments.","volume":"60","author":"Williams","year":"2007","journal-title":"FEMS Microbiol. Ecol."},{"key":"B92","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1342478","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2024.1342478","article-title":"A flow cytometric assay to detect viability and persistence of Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serotypes in nuclease-free water at 4 and 25\u00b0C.","volume":"15","author":"Williams","year":"2024","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"B93","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-19940-0_9","article-title":"Hygienically relevant microorganisms in biofilms of man-made water systems","author":"Wingender","year":"2011","journal-title":"Biofilm Highlights"},{"key":"B94","year":"2023","journal-title":"Drinking-water."},{"key":"B95","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4140","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.71.7.4140-4143.2005","article-title":"Impacts of goethite particles on UV disinfection of drinking water.","volume":"71","author":"Wu","year":"2005","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"B96","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"115069","DOI":"10.1016\/j.watres.2019.115069","article-title":"Vancomycin resistance plasmids affect persistence of Enterococcus faecium in water.","volume":"166","author":"Young","year":"2019","journal-title":"Water Res."},{"key":"B97","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1463056","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2024.1463056","article-title":"Research progress on environmental stability of SARS-CoV-2 and influenza viruses.","volume":"15","author":"Zhang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"B98","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"461","DOI":"10.3390\/v12040461","article-title":"Survival of human norovirus surrogates in water upon exposure to thermal and non-thermal antiviral treatments.","volume":"12","author":"Zhu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Viruses"}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Microbiology"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fmicb.2025.1654785\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,28]],"date-time":"2025-10-28T06:24:28Z","timestamp":1761632668000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fmicb.2025.1654785\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,28]]},"references-count":98,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fmicb.2025.1654785"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fmicb.2025.1654785","relation":{},"ISSN":["1664-302X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1664-302X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,28]]},"article-number":"1654785"}}