{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,27]],"date-time":"2026-10-27T18:14:03Z","timestamp":1793124843844,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":98,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,1]],"date-time":"2026-04-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1775001600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Microbiol."],"abstract":"<jats:p>\n                    The growing threat of antimicrobial resistance has intensified the search for alternative disinfection strategies. Plasma-activated water (PAW), enriched with reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (RONS), has emerged as a promising non-antibiotic antimicrobial approach. In this study, PAW was generated using a bench-scale dielectric barrier discharge (DBD) reactor coupled with a microbubble diffusion system, operating with compressed ambient air at 8\u20139 kV, frequencies of 40 kHz, 1.25 W, air flow rate of 5 L\/min with activation times of 7 and 14 min. In the generated PAW, ROS were produced in higher abundance than RNS, with hydrogen peroxide (H\n                    <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n                    O\n                    <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n                    ) and ozone (O\n                    <jats:sub>3<\/jats:sub>\n                    ) representing the dominant species contributing to the antimicrobial activity, alongside detectable levels of nitrite (NO\n                    <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n                    <jats:sup>\u2013<\/jats:sup>\n                    ), nitrate (NO\n                    <jats:sub>3<\/jats:sub>\n                    <jats:sup>\u2013<\/jats:sup>\n                    ), and nitrous acid (HNO\n                    <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n                    ). Physicochemical characterization included measurements of pH, oxidation-reduction potential (ORP), conductivity, and total dissolved solids (TDS), as well as qualitative analysis of RONS using UV\u2013Vis spectrophotometry (190\u2013400 nm), for detection of diagnostic wavelengths, with quantitative assessment based on colorimetric methods for H\n                    <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n                    O\n                    <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n                    , NO\n                    <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n                    <jats:sup>\u2013<\/jats:sup>\n                    , and NO\n                    <jats:sub>3<\/jats:sub>\n                    <jats:sup>\u2013<\/jats:sup>\n                    , and a photometric assay for O\n                    <jats:sub>3<\/jats:sub>\n                    . Antimicrobial activity was evaluated against\n                    <jats:italic>Staphylococcus aureus<\/jats:italic>\n                    (ATCC 6538),\n                    <jats:italic>Escherichia coli<\/jats:italic>\n                    (ATCC 25922), and\n                    <jats:italic>Candida albicans<\/jats:italic>\n                    (ATCC 10231) using PAW generated at 7 and 14 min of activation. In addition, cytotoxicity was evaluated in L929 fibroblasts following ISO 10993-5 criteria, and cell viability remained above the 70% threshold after exposure to PAW. Morphological assessments were performed in both L929 and B16F10 cells using fluorescence microscopy to examine potential differential cellular responses. These findings indicate that longer activation times enhanced antimicrobial activity while preserving fibroblast viability, supporting the potential of PAW as an effective and safe alternative for biomedical applications.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2026.1746535","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,1]],"date-time":"2026-04-01T05:42:08Z","timestamp":1775022128000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Antimicrobial efficacy and cytotoxic assessment of plasma-activated water generated by a dielectric barrier discharge microbubble system"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Raquel Oliveira","family":"Ferreira","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Technological Plasma, Institute of Science and Technology, S\u00e3o Paulo State University (UNESP), Sorocaba","place":["S\u00e3o Paulo, Brazil"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Danielle C. F. S.","family":"Spigarollo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Technological Plasma, Institute of Science and Technology, S\u00e3o Paulo State University (UNESP), Sorocaba","place":["S\u00e3o Paulo, Brazil"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Iolanda Cristina","family":"Silveira Duarte","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Applied Microbiology, Federal University of S\u00e3o Carlos (UFSCar), Sorocaba","place":["S\u00e3o Paulo, Brazil"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Elaine C.","family":"de Oliveira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Neuroscience, University of Campinas (Unicamp), Campinas","place":["S\u00e3o Paulo, Brazil"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nilson Cristino","family":"da Cruz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Technological Plasma, Institute of Science and Technology, S\u00e3o Paulo State University (UNESP), Sorocaba","place":["S\u00e3o Paulo, Brazil"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1223","DOI":"10.1007\/s11090-017-9810-1","article-title":"Evaluation of the effect of plasma treatment frequency on the activation of polymer particles.","volume":"37","author":"Abourayana","year":"2017","journal-title":"Plasma Chem. 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