{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,20]],"date-time":"2026-05-20T19:49:14Z","timestamp":1779306554348,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":56,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,20]],"date-time":"2026-02-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1771545600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Microbiol."],"abstract":"<jats:p>\n                    Understanding the airborne persistence of coronaviruses is critical for effective infection control, yet the effects of aerosolization and airborne suspension on viral infectivity remain poorly defined. In this study, we used bovine coronavirus (BCoV) as a surrogate for human\n                    <jats:italic>Betacoronaviruses<\/jats:italic>\n                    to evaluate how nebulization, aerosolization time, and continuous air mixing affect virus viability and RNA persistence. BCoV suspensions were aerosolized in a sealed, propeller-mixed chamber using a Collison nebulizer for 5, 10, 15, 30, and 45\u202fmin. Aerosols were collected using a Wetted Wall Cyclone (WWC), and post-nebulization suspension from the nebulizer reservoir and original stock were analyzed. Infectivity was quantified by TCID\n                    <jats:sub>50<\/jats:sub>\n                    assay on MDBK cells, and viral RNA was measured by qRT-PCR. Stock and nebulized suspensions retained stable infectivity, indicating that the mechanical forces of nebulization did not impair viral viability. In contrast, WWC-collected aerosols showed a time-dependent infectivity decline. Viral RNA in aerosols remained comparatively stable, whereas RNA levels in the nebulizer reservoir dropped during the first 5\u202fmin of nebulization and then remained constant. Temperature and relative humidity in the chamber during the tests showed only minor fluctuations. These findings showed minimal loss of BCoV viability in suspensions during nebulization and significant inactivation at prolonged air mixing, while RNA levels persist. The pronounced infectivity loss under continuous air mixing highlights the role of mechanical stresses in compromising airborne coronavirus viability, a factor directly relevant to indoor environments where HVAC systems and fans are commonly used. The findings of this study help inform risk mitigation strategies in real-world settings.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2026.1764341","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,20]],"date-time":"2026-02-20T06:41:13Z","timestamp":1771569673000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Aerosolization effects on coronavirus infectivity"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Meiyi","family":"Zhang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering, Texas A&M University","place":["College Station, TX, United States"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Gabriel L.","family":"Hamer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Entomology, Texas A&M University","place":["College Station, TX, United States"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Maria D.","family":"King","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering, Texas A&M University","place":["College Station, TX, United States"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"296","DOI":"10.1111\/tbed.13707","article-title":"Stability of SARS-CoV-2 and other coronaviruses in the environment and on common touch surfaces and the influence of climatic conditions: a review","volume":"68","author":"Aboubakr","year":"2021","journal-title":"Transbound. Emerg. Dis."},{"key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"11481","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-15703-8","article-title":"Modeling the impact of indoor relative humidity on the infection risk of five respiratory airborne viruses","volume":"12","author":"Aganovic","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"616","DOI":"10.3390\/v14030616","article-title":"Environmental effects on viable virus transport and resuspension in ventilation airflow","volume":"14","author":"Baig","year":"2022","journal-title":"Viruses"},{"key":"ref4","volume-title":"SARS-CoV specific RT-PCR primers","author":"Bellini","year":"2003"},{"key":"ref5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e00441-20","DOI":"10.1128\/msphere.00441-20","article-title":"Increasing temperature and relative humidity accelerates inactivation of SARS-CoV-2 on surfaces","volume":"5","author":"Biryukov","year":"2020","journal-title":"mSphere"},{"key":"ref6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"278","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhin.2015.08.004","article-title":"Influenza virus survival in aerosols and estimates of viable virus loss resulting from aerosolization and air-sampling","volume":"91","author":"Brown","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Hosp. Infect."},{"key":"ref7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"9800","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-023-36887-7","article-title":"Evaluation of inactivation of bovine coronavirus by low-level radiofrequency irradiation","volume":"13","author":"Cantu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2712","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.02291-09","article-title":"Effects of air temperature and relative humidity on coronavirus survival on surfaces","volume":"76","author":"Casanova","year":"2010","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"734690","DOI":"10.1155\/2011\/734690","article-title":"The effects of temperature and relative humidity on the viability of the SARS coronavirus","volume":"2011","author":"Chan","year":"2011","journal-title":"Adv Virol."},{"key":"ref10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"142","DOI":"10.1080\/02786826.2020.1829536","article-title":"The influence of temperature, humidity, and simulated sunlight on the infectivity of SARS-CoV-2 in aerosols","volume":"55","author":"Dabisch","year":"2021","journal-title":"Aerosol Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1564","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMc2004973","article-title":"Aerosol and surface stability of SARS-CoV-2 as compared with SARS-CoV-1","volume":"382","author":"Doremalen","year":"2020","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"531","DOI":"10.18502\/ijph.v51i3.8928","article-title":"The history of Corona virus: from Neanderthals to the present time: a brief review","volume":"51","author":"Farhud","year":"2022","journal-title":"Iran. J. Public Health"},{"key":"ref13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"488","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.0c06191","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 RNA in wastewater settled solids is associated with COVID-19 cases in a large urban Sewershed","volume":"55","author":"Graham","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"114057","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2022.114057","article-title":"Fate of SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus in wastewater treatment sludge during storage and thermophilic anaerobic digestion","volume":"214","author":"Gu\u00e9rin-Rechdaoui","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"242","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhin.2016.03.017","article-title":"Bioaerosol sampling: sampling mechanisms, bioefficiency and field studies","volume":"93","author":"Haig","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Hosp. Infect."},{"key":"ref16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"403","DOI":"10.12688\/f1000research.110305.2","article-title":"Effect of elevated temperature on SARS-CoV-2 viability","volume":"11","author":"Harapan","year":"2022","journal-title":"F1000Res"},{"key":"ref17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4811","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.00472-06","article-title":"Optimization of a sampling system for recovery and detection of airborne porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus and swine influenza virus","volume":"72","author":"Hermann","year":"2006","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1032","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2704.204800","article-title":"Characteristics of SARS-CoV-2 transmission among meat processing Workers in Nebraska, USA, and effectiveness of risk mitigation measures","volume":"27","author":"Herstein","year":"2021","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2743","DOI":"10.1099\/0022-1317-66-12-2743","article-title":"Survival characteristics of airborne human coronavirus 229E","volume":"66","author":"Ijaz","year":"1985","journal-title":"J. Gen. Virol."},{"key":"ref20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1908","DOI":"10.3390\/v13101908","article-title":"Evolutionary dynamics and epidemiology of endemic and emerging coronaviruses in humans, domestic animals, and wildlife","volume":"13","author":"Islam","year":"2021","journal-title":"Viruses"},{"key":"ref21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"984","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-80098-3","article-title":"Stability of SARS-CoV-2 on critical personal protective equipment","volume":"11","author":"Kasloff","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1007\/s10453-007-9068-9","article-title":"Effects of humidity and other factors on the generation and sampling of a coronavirus aerosol","volume":"23","author":"Kim","year":"2007","journal-title":"Aerobiologia"},{"key":"ref23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100316","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jfp.2024.100316","article-title":"Efficacy of three antimicrobials against two SARS-COV-2 surrogates, bovine coronavirus and human coronavirus OC43, on hard or soft nonporous materials","volume":"87","author":"Kimbrell","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Food Prot."},{"key":"ref24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1080\/02786826.2011.605400","article-title":"Bioaerosol sampling with a Wetted Wall cyclone: cell Culturability and DNA integrity of Escherichia coli Bacteria","volume":"46","author":"King","year":"2012","journal-title":"Aerosol Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"117043","DOI":"10.1016\/j.watres.2021.117043","article-title":"Evaluating recovery, cost, and throughput of different concentration methods for SARS-CoV-2 wastewater-based epidemiology","volume":"197","author":"LaTurner","year":"2021","journal-title":"Water Res."},{"key":"ref26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1016\/j.prevetmed.2018.02.019","article-title":"Detection of influenza a virus from agricultural fair environment: air and surfaces","volume":"153","author":"Lauterbach","year":"2018","journal-title":"Prev. Vet. Med."},{"key":"ref27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-chembioeng-092220-111631","article-title":"Airborne transmission of SARS-CoV-2: evidence and implications for engineering controls","volume":"13","author":"McNeill","year":"2022","journal-title":"Annual Review Chemical Biomolecular Engineering"},{"key":"ref28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"358","DOI":"10.1039\/C4EN00017J","article-title":"Localized fluorescent complexation enables rapid monitoring of airborne nanoparticles","volume":"1","author":"Meng","year":"2014","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Nano."},{"key":"ref29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1484992","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2024.1484992","article-title":"Dependence of aerosol-borne influenza a virus infectivity on relative humidity and aerosol composition","volume":"15","author":"Motos","year":"2024","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0049721","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.00497-21","article-title":"Utility of three nebulizers in investigating the infectivity of airborne viruses","volume":"87","author":"Niazi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1315","DOI":"10.1080\/02786826.2021.1976718","article-title":"Measuring stability of virus in aerosols under varying environmental conditions","volume":"55","author":"Oswin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Aerosol Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0052621","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.00526-21","article-title":"Persistence of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) virus and viral RNA in relation to surface type and contamination concentration","volume":"87","author":"Paton","year":"2021","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"717","DOI":"10.1093\/ije\/dyaa033","article-title":"The SARS, MERS and novel coronavirus (COVID-19) epidemics, the newest and biggest global health threats: what lessons have we learned?","volume":"49","author":"Peeri","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0242456","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0242456","article-title":"Investigation of superspreading COVID-19 outbreak events in meat and poultry processing plants in Germany: a cross-sectional study","volume":"16","author":"Pokora","year":"2021","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"ref35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1038\/s41579-022-00822-w","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 viral load and shedding kinetics","volume":"21","author":"Puhach","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"158","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaerosci.2017.09.009","article-title":"Survival of aerosolized coronavirus in the ambient air","volume":"115","author":"Pyankov","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Aerosol Sci."},{"key":"ref37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1089\/jamp.2021.0030","article-title":"Particle dynamics and bioaerosol viability of aerosolized Bacillus Calmette-Gu\u00e9rin vaccine using jet and vibrating mesh clinical nebulizers","volume":"35","author":"Redmann","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Aerosol Med. Pulm. Drug Deliv."},{"key":"ref38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"493","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordjournals.aje.a118408","article-title":"A simple method of estimating fifty per cent endpoints12","volume":"27","author":"Reed","year":"1938","journal-title":"Am. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1391","DOI":"10.12998\/wjcc.v8.i8.1391","article-title":"Stability and infectivity of coronaviruses in inanimate environments","volume":"8","author":"Ren","year":"2020","journal-title":"World J. Clin. Cases"},{"key":"ref40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101471","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cocis.2021.101471","article-title":"Airborne virus transmission via respiratory droplets: effects of droplet evaporation and sedimentation","volume":"55","author":"Rezaei","year":"2021","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Colloid Interface Sci."},{"key":"ref41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1186\/s12985-020-01418-7","article-title":"The effect of temperature on persistence of SARS-CoV-2 on common surfaces","volume":"17","author":"Riddell","year":"2020","journal-title":"Virol. J."},{"key":"ref42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"564","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiaa334","article-title":"Airborne SARS-CoV-2 is rapidly inactivated by simulated sunlight","volume":"222","author":"Schuit","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"343","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbrc.2020.11.080","article-title":"Structural stability of SARS-CoV-2 virus like particles degrades with temperature","volume":"534","author":"Sharma","year":"2021","journal-title":"Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun."},{"key":"ref44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"106017","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaerosci.2022.106017","article-title":"Aerosolization triggers immediate antibiotic resistance in bacteria","volume":"164","author":"Smith","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Aerosol Sci."},{"key":"ref45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"647","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms11030647","article-title":"Quiescence of Escherichia coli aerosols to survive mechanical stress during high-velocity collection","volume":"11","author":"Smith","year":"2023","journal-title":"Microorganisms"},{"key":"ref46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2349","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-025-86562-2","article-title":"Airborne Escherichia coli bacteria biosynthesize lipids in response to aerosolization stress","volume":"15","author":"Smith","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2532","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms13112532","article-title":"Aerosolization affects Bacillus globigii vegetative cell and spore behaviors","volume":"13","author":"Smith","year":"2025","journal-title":"Microorganisms"},{"key":"ref48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1415","DOI":"10.1080\/22221751.2020.1777906","article-title":"Experimental aerosol survival of SARS-CoV-2 in artificial saliva and tissue culture media at medium and high humidity","volume":"9","author":"Smither","year":"2020","journal-title":"Emerg Microbes Infect"},{"key":"ref49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e37232","DOI":"10.2196\/37232","article-title":"The impact of heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning design features on the transmission of viruses, including SARS-CoV-2: overview of reviews","volume":"11","author":"Thornton","year":"2022","journal-title":"Interact J Med Res"},{"key":"ref50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"20590","DOI":"10.2807\/1560-7917.ES2013.18.38.20590","article-title":"Stability of Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) under different environmental conditions","volume":"18","author":"van Doremalen","year":"2013","journal-title":"Euro Surveill."},{"key":"ref51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"10624","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-14552-9","article-title":"Survival of SARS-CoV-2 and bovine coronavirus on common surfaces of living environments","volume":"12","author":"Watanabe","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eehl.2022.04.006","article-title":"A narrative review on the role of temperature and humidity in COVID-19: transmission, persistence, and epidemiological evidence","volume":"1","author":"Wei","year":"2022","journal-title":"Eco Environ Health"},{"key":"ref53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1098","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiaa437","article-title":"Environmental sampling for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 during a COVID-19 outbreak on the diamond princess cruise ship","volume":"222","author":"Yamagishi","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"174","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms11010174","article-title":"Temporal variation of SARS-CoV-2 levels in wastewater from a meat processing plant","volume":"11","author":"Zhang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Microorganisms"},{"key":"ref55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100016","DOI":"10.1016\/j.temicr.2025.100016","article-title":"Culture and real-time quantitative PCR to detect environmental nontuberculous mycobacteria in a clinical care center","volume":"1","author":"Zhang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Total Environment Microbiology"},{"key":"ref56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"789","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-04673-y","article-title":"Binding behavior of spike protein and receptor binding domain of the SARS-CoV-2 virus at different environmental conditions","volume":"12","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Microbiology"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fmicb.2026.1764341\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,20]],"date-time":"2026-02-20T06:41:14Z","timestamp":1771569674000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fmicb.2026.1764341\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,20]]},"references-count":56,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fmicb.2026.1764341"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fmicb.2026.1764341","relation":{},"ISSN":["1664-302X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1664-302X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,20]]},"article-number":"1764341"}}