{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,16]],"date-time":"2026-09-16T19:21:57Z","timestamp":1789586517051,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":68,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,18]],"date-time":"2026-02-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1771372800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Microbiol."],"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Antimicrobial resistance in\n                      <jats:italic>Mycoplasma gallisepticum<\/jats:italic>\n                      (MG) poses a significant threat to global poultry production, as traditional antibiotics, particularly macrolides, are becoming increasingly ineffective due to growing resistance. This study investigates\n                      <jats:italic>Spirulina platensis<\/jats:italic>\n                      as a natural antimicrobial candidate against macrolide-resistant MG strains.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Materials and methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      We tested 64 field isolates, along with the reference strain ATCC 15302, using broth microdilution. Minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) were measured for conventional antibiotics (doxycycline, oxytetracycline, tylosin, tilmicosin, Aivlosin) and\n                      <jats:italic>Spirulina<\/jats:italic>\n                      extract. Principal Component Analysis and correlation matrices were employed to investigate therapeutic relationships, while cytotoxicity assays evaluated safety profiles.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      High resistance rates were observed for the macrolides tilmicosin (87.5%) and tylosin (68.75%).\n                      <jats:italic>Spirulina platensis<\/jats:italic>\n                      showed\n                      <jats:italic>in vitro<\/jats:italic>\n                      antimicrobial activity against the tested isolates, with MICs ranging from 3.9 to 1,000\u202f\u03bcg\/mL; 65% of isolates were inhibited at concentrations of 250\u202f\u03bcg\/mL or lower, indicating measurable activity and supporting further investigation as a natural antimicrobial compound. Correlation analyses indicated weak or negligible associations with conventional antibiotics (\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      &amp;lt;\u202f2.2\u202f\u00d7\u202f10\n                      <jats:sup>\u221216<\/jats:sup>\n                      ), reflecting a distinct activity profile. Additionally,\n                      <jats:italic>Spirulina<\/jats:italic>\n                      exhibited no cytotoxicity up to 4,000\u202f\u03bcg\/mL, with a selectivity index of 512.8, indicating a favorable\n                      <jats:italic>in vitro<\/jats:italic>\n                      safety profile.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      These findings suggest that\n                      <jats:italic>Spirulina platensis<\/jats:italic>\n                      acts as a uniquely mechanistic, non-toxic antimicrobial agent that can bypass existing resistance mechanisms. Further\n                      <jats:italic>in vivo<\/jats:italic>\n                      validation and mechanistic investigations are necessary to assess its potential as an alternative therapeutic option for poultry health management and combating antimicrobial resistance.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2026.1769010","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,18]],"date-time":"2026-02-18T16:20:22Z","timestamp":1771431622000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Spirulina platensis as a novel natural antimicrobial against macrolide-resistant Mycoplasma gallisepticum in poultry"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Sabrina","family":"Zidi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Group of Mycoplasmas, Laboratory of Molecular Microbiology, Vaccinology, and Biotechnology Development, Pasteur Institute of Tunis, University of Tunis El Manar","place":["Tunis, Tunisia"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nadine","family":"Khadraoui","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Group of Mycoplasmas, Laboratory of Molecular Microbiology, Vaccinology, and Biotechnology Development, Pasteur Institute of Tunis, University of Tunis El Manar","place":["Tunis, Tunisia"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rym","family":"Essid","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Medical Parasitology, Biotechnology and Biomolecules, Pasteur Institute of Tunis, University of Tunis El Manar","place":["Tunis, Tunisia"]},{"name":"Laboratory of Bioactive Substances, Center of Biotechnology of Borj Cedria","place":["Tunis, Tunisia"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Imen","family":"Chniba","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Group of Mycoplasmas, Laboratory of Molecular Microbiology, Vaccinology, and Biotechnology Development, Pasteur Institute of Tunis, University of Tunis El Manar","place":["Tunis, Tunisia"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sarra","family":"Abassi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Group of Mycoplasmas, Laboratory of Molecular Microbiology, Vaccinology, and Biotechnology Development, Pasteur Institute of Tunis, University of Tunis El Manar","place":["Tunis, Tunisia"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Salim","family":"Chibani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Group of Mycoplasmas, Laboratory of Molecular Microbiology, Vaccinology, and Biotechnology Development, Pasteur Institute of Tunis, University of Tunis El Manar","place":["Tunis, Tunisia"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Maher","family":"Gazbar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Eden Life Industry","place":["Gab\u00e8s, Tunisia"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Behija","family":"Mlik","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Group of Mycoplasmas, Laboratory of Molecular Microbiology, Vaccinology, and Biotechnology Development, Pasteur Institute of Tunis, University of Tunis El Manar","place":["Tunis, Tunisia"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"H\u00e9di","family":"Gazbar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Eden Life Industry","place":["Gab\u00e8s, Tunisia"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Wassim Y.","family":"Almawi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Sciences of Tunis, University of Tunis El Manar","place":["Tunis, Tunisia"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Boutheina","family":"Ben Abdelmoumen Mardassi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Group of Mycoplasmas, Laboratory of Molecular Microbiology, Vaccinology, and Biotechnology Development, Pasteur Institute of Tunis, University of Tunis El Manar","place":["Tunis, Tunisia"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1835","DOI":"10.1111\/jpn.13454","article-title":"Probiotics in poultry feed: A comprehensive review","volume":"104","author":"Abd El-Hack","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. 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