{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,27]],"date-time":"2026-03-27T07:36:44Z","timestamp":1774597004666,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":71,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,27]],"date-time":"2026-03-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1774569600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Microbiol."],"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Introduction<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Current diagnostics for tuberculosis (TB) rely on sputum or site-specific specimen collection, posing critical limitations in certain populations. Urine has emerged as an alternative specimen, as demonstrated by urine lipoarabinomannan (LAM) testing. Beyond LAM, no urine-based tests are established for clinical use, and evidence for non-LAM urine antigen tests and urine-based nucleic acid amplification tests (NAATs) remains inconsistently synthesized. This scoping review aimed to comprehensively map current evidence and identify gaps in urine-based diagnostic tests for TB.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>We conducted a scoping review across three databases (PubMed, Scopus, and Embase) of studies evaluating urine-based diagnostic tests for TB and reporting diagnostic performance metrics, extracting data on urine test type, country, TB disease type, study population, and HIV status. Findings were summarized descriptively and visualized to illustrate trends. We also extracted technical approaches for urine-based NAATs and urine concentration methods.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      In total, 208 publications reporting 274 urine-based tests published between 1995 and 2024 were included. Most studies were conducted in high-burden settings and focused on pulmonary TB (44.7%), adult populations (62.5%), and people living with HIV (31.3%). LAM-based tests dominated the literature, accounting for 49.3% (\n                      <jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u202f=\u202f135) of all tests, primarily in lateral flow formats. Non-LAM urine antigen tests were evaluated less frequently (\n                      <jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u202f=\u202f26), typically in small cohorts and laboratory-based assays. Urine-based NAATs showed wide variability in technical approaches. Only a few studies (\n                      <jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u202f=\u202f10) evaluated urine concentration methods.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Evidence for urine-based diagnostic tests for TB remains limited for extrapulmonary TB, children, and non-HIV individuals, despite substantial unmet need. Although urine LAM is the most established assay, evaluations of non-LAM urine antigen tests and urine-based NAATs remain exploratory, with few studies, small cohorts, and predominantly laboratory-based assays. Further research is needed to identify and validate reliable, broadly applicable urine-based diagnostic tests to address these gaps.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2026.1783312","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,27]],"date-time":"2026-03-27T06:40:04Z","timestamp":1774593604000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Urine-based diagnostic tests for tuberculosis: a scoping review highlighting unmet diagnostic needs"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Mayu","family":"Hikone","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Kenya Research Station, Institute of Tropical Medicine, Nagasaki University","place":["Nagasaki, Japan"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yuya","family":"Kondo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Medicine, Nagasaki University","place":["Nagasaki, Japan"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yu","family":"Takaizumi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ecoepidemiology and Epidemiological Informatics in Tropical Medicine, Nagasaki University Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Nagasaki University","place":["Nagasaki, Japan"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Wataru","family":"Kagaya","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ecoepidemiology, Institute of Tropical Medicine, Nagasaki University","place":["Nagasaki, Japan"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Katharina","family":"Kranzer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Clinical Research Department, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine","place":["London, United Kingdom"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Nobuo","family":"Saito","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Kenya Research Station, Institute of Tropical Medicine, Nagasaki University","place":["Nagasaki, Japan"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1136\/thx.54.2.145","article-title":"Identification of HIV patients with active pulmonary tuberculosis using urine based polymerase chain reaction assay","volume":"54","author":"Aceti","year":"1999","journal-title":"Thorax"},{"key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"390","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-017-2476-8","article-title":"Diagnostic accuracy of nucleic acid amplification tests (NAATs) in urine for genitourinary tuberculosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"17","author":"Altez-Fernandez","year":"2017","journal-title":"BMC Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0275838","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0275838","article-title":"Overcome low levels of detection limit and choice of antibody affects detection of lipoarabinomannan in pediatric tuberculosis","volume":"17","author":"Amin","year":"2022","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"ref4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"178","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tube.2018.06.004","article-title":"Detection of lipoarabinomannan in urine and serum of HIV-positive and HIV-negative TB suspects using an improved capture-enzyme linked immuno absorbent assay and gas chromatography\/mass spectrometry","volume":"111","author":"Amin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Tuberculosis (Edinb.)"},{"key":"ref9016","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"102423","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tube.2023.102423","article-title":"Performance of IS6110-LAMP assay for detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex in blood and urine samples from patients with extrapulmonary tuberculosis","volume":"143","author":"Ara\u00fajo","year":"2023","journal-title":"Tuberculosis (Edinb.)"},{"key":"ref5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.46658\/JBIMES-24-01","volume-title":"JBI Manual for Evidence Synthesis","author":"Aromataris","year":""},{"key":"ref9011","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1097\/MRM.0000000000000083","article-title":"Evaluating nested-PCR of urine to diagnose smear positive pulmonary tuberculosis","volume":"27","author":"Ayatollahi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Rev Med Microbiol."},{"key":"ref9014","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0232632","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0232632","article-title":"Simultaneous detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex and resistance to rifampicin and isoniazid by MDR\/MTB ELITe MGB\u00ae kit for the diagnosis of tuberculosis","volume":"15","author":"Bisognin","year":"2020","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"ref6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"CD011420","DOI":"10.1002\/14651858.CD011420.pub3","article-title":"Lateral flow urine lipoarabinomannan assay for detecting active tuberculosis in people living with HIV","volume":"2019","author":"Bjerrum","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cochrane Database Syst. Rev."},{"key":"ref7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mimet.2017.02.010","article-title":"Design and use of mouse control DNA for DNA biomarker extraction and PCR detection from urine: application for transrenal Mycobacterium tuberculosis DNA detection","volume":"136","author":"Bordelon","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Microbiol. Methods"},{"key":"ref8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"h5527","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.h5527","article-title":"STARD 2015: an updated list of essential items for reporting diagnostic accuracy studies","volume":"351","author":"Bossuyt","year":"2015","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e903","DOI":"10.1016\/S2214-109X(23)00135-3","article-title":"Diagnostic yield of urine lipoarabinomannan and sputum tuberculosis tests in people living with HIV: a systematic review and meta-analysis of individual participant data","volume":"11","author":"Broger","year":"2023","journal-title":"Lancet Glob. Health"},{"key":"ref10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(19)30684-X","article-title":"Tuberculosis test results using fresh versus biobanked urine samples with FujiLAM","volume":"20","author":"Broger","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref11","first-page":"146","article-title":"Mycobacterium tuberculosis DNA detection in soluble fraction of urine from pulmonary tuberculosis patients","volume":"12","author":"Cannas","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. J. Tuberc. Lung Dis."},{"key":"ref12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"64","DOI":"10.4103\/lungindia.lungindia_574_19","article-title":"A systematic review of utility of urine lipoarabinomannan in detecting tuberculosis among HIV-positive tuberculosis suspects","volume":"38","author":"Chatla","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lung India"},{"key":"ref9013","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100125","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jctube.2019.100125","article-title":"Utility of urine as a clinical specimen for the diagnosis of pulmonary tuberculosis in people living with HIV in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia","volume":"17","author":"Chemeda","year":"2019","journal-title":"J Clin Tuberc Other Mycobact Dis."},{"key":"ref13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijid.2020.03.023","article-title":"Clinical validation of urine-based Xpert\u00ae MTB\/RIF assay for the diagnosis of urogenital tuberculosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"95","author":"Chen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0254156","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0254156","article-title":"Field evaluation of a prototype tuberculosis lipoarabinomannan lateral flow assay on HIV-positive and HIV-negative patients","volume":"16","author":"Connelly","year":"2021","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"ref9015","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e20200051","DOI":"10.1590\/0037-8682-0051-2020","article-title":"Rapid detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in children using blood and urine specimens","volume":"53","author":"Costa-Lima","year":"2020","journal-title":"Rev. Soc. Bras. Med. Trop."},{"key":"ref9007","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1590\/S1517-83822011000100041","article-title":"Evaluation of a nested-PCR for mycobacterium tuberculosis detection in blood and urine samples. Braz","volume":"42","author":"da Cruz","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"115973","DOI":"10.1016\/j.diagmicrobio.2023.115973","article-title":"MPT51 and MPT64-based antigen detection assay for the diagnosis of extrapulmonary tuberculosis from urine samples","volume":"107","author":"Dass","year":"2023","journal-title":"Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjebm-2018-111107","article-title":"Catalogue of bias: publication bias","volume":"24","author":"DeVito","year":"2019","journal-title":"BMJ Evid. Based Med."},{"key":"ref17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"707","DOI":"10.3889\/oamjms.2021.6661","article-title":"Association of urinary interferon gamma protein-10 levels and low levels of cluster of differentiation 4 serum in patients with tuberculosis-human immunodeficiency virus coinfection","volume":"9","author":"Elvira","year":"2021","journal-title":"Open Access Maced. J. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"473","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijid.2020.08.019","article-title":"Host urine immunological biomarkers as potential candidates for the diagnosis of tuberculosis","volume":"99","author":"Eribo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"353","DOI":"10.1021\/acsinfecdis.8b00241","article-title":"Elucidation of a human urine metabolite as a Seryl-leucine Glycopeptide and as a biomarker of effective anti-tuberculosis therapy","volume":"5","author":"Fitzgerald","year":"2019","journal-title":"ACS Infect Dis."},{"key":"ref9003","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1324","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.36.5.1324-1329.1998","article-title":"Rapid diagnosis of extrapulmonary tuberculosis by ligase chain reaction amplification","volume":"36","author":"Gamboa","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref9006","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"374","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijid.2008.07.022","article-title":"Urine as an adjunct specimen for the diagnosis of active pulmonary tuberculosis","volume":"13","author":"Gopinath","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"505","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(09)70149-5","article-title":"Rapid diagnosis of tuberculosis through the detection of mycobacterial DNA in urine by nucleic acid amplification methods","volume":"9","author":"Green","year":"2009","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1186\/s12916-016-0603-9","article-title":"Detection of lipoarabinomannan (LAM) in urine is an independent predictor of mortality risk in patients receiving treatment for HIV-associated tuberculosis in sub-Saharan Africa: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"14","author":"Gupta-Wright","year":"2016","journal-title":"BMC Med."},{"key":"ref22","first-page":"847","article-title":"Smear-negative pulmonary tuberculosis in a DOTS programme: poor outcomes in an area of high HIV seroprevalence","volume":"5","author":"Hargreaves","year":"2001","journal-title":"Int. J. Tuberc. Lung Dis."},{"key":"ref9008","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e9311","DOI":"10.5812\/jjm.9311","article-title":"Urine PCR evaluation to diagnose pulmonary tuberculosis","volume":"7","author":"Heydari","year":"2014","journal-title":"Jundishapur J Microbiol."},{"key":"ref23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"22317","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-78999-4","article-title":"Discovery and validation of an NMR-based metabolomic profile in urine as TB biomarker","volume":"10","author":"Izquierdo-Garcia","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref9010","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e35634","DOI":"10.5812\/jjm.35634","article-title":"Urine-based nested PCR for the diagnosis of Mycobacterium tuberculosis: a comparative study between HIV-positive and HIV-negative patients","volume":"9","author":"Jamshidi Makiani","year":"2016","journal-title":"Jundishapur J Microbiol."},{"key":"ref24","first-page":"732","article-title":"Evaluation of PCR-based methods for the diagnosis of tuberculosis by identification of mycobacterial DNA in urine samples","volume":"6","author":"Kafwabulula","year":"2002","journal-title":"Int. J. Tuberc. Lung Dis."},{"key":"ref25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"10931","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-09895-7","article-title":"Disseminated tuberculosis among hospitalised HIV patients in South Africa: a common condition that can be rapidly diagnosed using urine-based assays","volume":"7","author":"Kerkhoff","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"CD012768","DOI":"10.1002\/14651858.CD012768.pub3","article-title":"Xpert MTB\/RIF ultra and Xpert MTB\/RIF assays for extrapulmonary tuberculosis and rifampicin resistance in adults","volume":"1","author":"Kohli","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cochrane Database Syst. Rev."},{"key":"ref27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1875","DOI":"10.1097\/qad.0b013e32832e05c8","article-title":"Urine lipoarabinomannan assay for tuberculosis screening before antiretroviral therapy diagnostic yield and association with immune reconstitution disease","volume":"23","author":"Lawn","year":"2009","journal-title":"AIDS"},{"key":"ref28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1186\/s12916-017-0822-8","article-title":"Diagnostic accuracy, incremental yield and prognostic value of determine TB-LAM for routine diagnostic testing for tuberculosis in HIV-infected patients requiring acute hospital admission in South Africa: a prospective cohort","volume":"15","author":"Lawn","year":"2017","journal-title":"BMC Med."},{"key":"ref29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"852","DOI":"10.1021\/acssensors.6b00309","article-title":"Rapid diagnosis of tuberculosis from analysis of urine volatile organic compounds","volume":"1","author":"Lim","year":"2016","journal-title":"ACS Sens."},{"key":"ref9009","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"731","DOI":"10.1590\/0037-8682-0210-2015","article-title":"Single-tube nested PCR assay with in-house DNA extraction for Mycobacterium tuberculosis detection in blood and urine","volume":"48","author":"Lima","year":"2015","journal-title":"Rev. Soc. Bras. Med. Trop."},{"key":"ref30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e00706-21","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.00706-21","article-title":"Progress toward developing sensitive non-sputum-based tuberculosis diagnostic tests: the promise of urine cell-free DNA","volume":"59","author":"MacLean","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1339","DOI":"10.5588\/ijtld.15.0209","article-title":"Diagnostic accuracy of nucleic acid amplification tests in urine for pulmonary tuberculosis: a meta-analysis","volume":"19","author":"Marangu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Tuberc. Lung Dis."},{"key":"ref9004","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"331","DOI":"10.1099\/jmm.0.05091-0","article-title":"Evaluation of a rapid bacteriophage-based method for the detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in clinical samples","volume":"52","author":"Marei","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Med. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1398","DOI":"10.1183\/09031936.00025711","article-title":"Diagnosing tuberculosis with urine lipoarabinomannan: systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"38","author":"Minion","year":"2011","journal-title":"Eur. Respir. J."},{"key":"ref33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1620\/tjem.177.13","article-title":"Clinical evaluation of polymerase chain reaction DNA amplification method for the diagnosis of pulmonary tuberculosis in patients with negative acid-fast bacilli smear","volume":"177","author":"Mitarai","year":"1995","journal-title":"Tohoku J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/2046-4053-4-1","article-title":"Preferred reporting items for systematic review and meta-analysis protocols (PRISMA-P) 2015 statement","volume":"4","author":"Moher","year":"2015","journal-title":"Syst. Rev."},{"key":"ref9001","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"638","DOI":"10.1128\/CVI.00010-08","article-title":"Identification of Mycobacterium tuberculosis ornithine carboamyltransferase in urine as a possible molecular marker of active pulmonary tuberculosis","volume":"15","author":"Napolitano","year":"2008","journal-title":"Clin. Vaccine Immunol."},{"key":"ref35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"CD014641","DOI":"10.1002\/14651858.CD014641","article-title":"Impact of diagnostic strategies for tuberculosis using lateral flow urine lipoarabinomannan assay in people living with HIV","volume":"8","author":"Nathavitharana","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cochrane Database Syst. Rev."},{"key":"ref36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0007421","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.00074-21","article-title":"Diagnosing pulmonary tuberculosis by using sequence-specific purification of urine cell-free DNA","volume":"59","author":"Oreskovic","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmoldx.2017.11.005","article-title":"Evaluation of a urine-based rapid molecular diagnostic test with potential to be used at point-of-Care for Pulmonary Tuberculosis: Cape Town cohort","volume":"20","author":"Patel","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Mol. Diagn."},{"key":"ref38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"262","DOI":"10.1097\/MCP.0b013e328337f23a","article-title":"Urine for the diagnosis of tuberculosis: current approaches, clinical applicability, and new developments","volume":"16","author":"Peter","year":"2010","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Pulm. Med."},{"key":"ref39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1211","DOI":"10.1183\/09031936.00201711","article-title":"Diagnostic accuracy of a urine lipoarabinomannan strip-test for TB detection in HIV-infected hospitalised patients","volume":"40","author":"Peter","year":"2012","journal-title":"Eur. Respir. J."},{"key":"ref40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"589471","DOI":"10.1155\/2015\/589471","article-title":"Blood or urine IP-10 cannot discriminate between active tuberculosis and respiratory diseases different from tuberculosis in children","volume":"2015","author":"Petrone","year":"2015","journal-title":"Biomed. Res. Int."},{"key":"ref9017","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.2144\/btn-2023-0080","article-title":"Development and evaluation of a single-tube nested PCR with colorimetric assay for Mycobacterium tuberculosis detection","volume":"76","author":"Salazar","year":"2024","journal-title":"BioTechniques"},{"key":"ref41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1016\/j.diagmicrobio.2018.06.014","article-title":"Development of colorimetric sensor array for diagnosis of tuberculosis through detection of urinary volatile organic compounds","volume":"92","author":"Sandlund","year":"2018","journal-title":"Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref9012","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"331","DOI":"10.1590\/0037-8682-0372-2017","article-title":"Performance of the IS6110-TaqMan\u00ae assay in the diagnosis of extrapulmonary tuberculosis from different biological samples","volume":"51","author":"Santos","year":"2018","journal-title":"Rev. Soc. Bras. Med. Trop."},{"key":"ref42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1479","DOI":"10.1128\/CVI.00375-13","article-title":"Modification of clearview tuberculosis (TB) enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for TB patients not infected with HIV","volume":"20","author":"Savolainen","year":"2013","journal-title":"Clin. Vaccine Immunol."},{"key":"ref43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e114023","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0114023","article-title":"Extent of non-publication in cohorts of studies approved by research ethics committees or included in trial registries","volume":"9","author":"Schmucker","year":"2014","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"ref44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"281","DOI":"10.1006\/mcpr.1997.0119","article-title":"Detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis by PCR analysis of urine and other clinical samples from AIDS and non-HIV-infected patients","volume":"11","author":"Sechi","year":"1997","journal-title":"Mol. Cell. Probes"},{"key":"ref45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijregi.2022.06.004","article-title":"Value of urine-based lipoarabinomannan (LAM) antigen tests for diagnosing tuberculosis in children: systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"4","author":"Seid","year":"2022","journal-title":"IJID Reg."},{"key":"ref46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"CD011420","DOI":"10.1002\/14651858.CD011420.pub2","article-title":"Lateral flow urine lipoarabinomannan assay for detecting active tuberculosis in HIV-positive adults","volume":"2016","author":"Shah","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cochrane Database Syst. Rev."},{"key":"ref47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"115879","DOI":"10.1016\/j.diagmicrobio.2022.115879","article-title":"Diagnostic accuracy of urine based lipoarabinomannan point of care tuberculosis diagnostic test in HIV negative children: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"105","author":"Sood","year":"2023","journal-title":"Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"893","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pcl.2017.03.010","article-title":"Tuberculosis in children","volume":"64","author":"Thomas","year":"2017","journal-title":"Pediatr. Clin. N. Am."},{"key":"ref9005","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1099\/jmm.0.45688-0","article-title":"PCR-based detection of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex in urine of HIV-infected and uninfected pulmonary and extrapulmonary tuberculosis patients in Burkina Faso","volume":"54","author":"Torrea","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Med. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.7326\/M18-0850","article-title":"PRISMA extension for scoping reviews (PRISMA-ScR): checklist and explanation","volume":"169","author":"Tricco","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ann. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e00426","DOI":"10.1128\/spectrum.00426-24","article-title":"Diagnostic accuracy of a sequence-specific Mtb-DNA hybridization assay in urine: a case-control study including subclinical TB cases","volume":"12","author":"Tschan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Microbiol. Spectrum"},{"key":"ref51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3259329","DOI":"10.1155\/2017\/3259329","article-title":"Comparison of the performance of urinary Mycobacterium tuberculosis antigens cocktail (ESAT6, CFP10, and MPT64) with culture and microscopy in pulmonary tuberculosis patients","volume":"2017","author":"Turbawaty","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int J Microbiol."},{"key":"ref52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2632010X231198831","DOI":"10.1177\/2632010X231198831","article-title":"High positivity rate of urinary Mycobacterium tuberculosis antigens cocktail (ESAT-6, CFP-10, and MPT-64) in active tuberculosis patients with and without human immunodeficiency virus infection: a cross-sectional study","volume":"16","author":"Turbawaty","year":"2023","journal-title":"Clin Pathol."},{"key":"ref53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/s41426-018-0066-5","article-title":"Identification of potential urine proteins and microRNA biomarkers for the diagnosis of pulmonary tuberculosis patients","volume":"7","author":"Wang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Emerg Microbes Infect."},{"key":"ref54","volume-title":"Global Tuberculosis Report 2025","year":""},{"key":"ref55","first-page":"771","article-title":"Urinary neopterin measurement as a non-invasive diagnostic method in pulmonary tuberculosis","volume":"7","author":"Yuksekol","year":"2003","journal-title":"Int. J. Tuberc. Lung Dis."}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Microbiology"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fmicb.2026.1783312\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,27]],"date-time":"2026-03-27T06:40:06Z","timestamp":1774593606000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fmicb.2026.1783312\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,27]]},"references-count":71,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fmicb.2026.1783312"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fmicb.2026.1783312","relation":{},"ISSN":["1664-302X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1664-302X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,27]]},"article-number":"1783312"}}