{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,15]],"date-time":"2026-06-15T05:55:12Z","timestamp":1781502912025,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":14,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,15]],"date-time":"2026-06-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1781481600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Microbiol."],"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Introduction<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      As a part of an ongoing investigation of the 2025 multistate outbreak of infant botulism linked to consumption of powdered infant formula (PIF), various samples \u2013 including unopened containers of PIF and base powder (bulk PIF before packaging) \u2013 were analyzed for the presence of\n                      <jats:italic>Clostridium botulinum<\/jats:italic>\n                      .\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Samples were screened using a tiered analytical approach: anaerobic enrichment followed by real-time PCR targeting botulinum neurotoxin-associated genes, confirmatory PCR, amplicon sequencing, colony isolation, and whole-genome sequencing (WGS).\n                      <jats:italic>C. botulinum<\/jats:italic>\n                      was detected in both the finished product and base powder.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Genomic analysis revealed genetic identity between isolates from one finished product lot and a base powder, while an isolate from another lot was distinct. Importantly, detection occurred in samples with non-detectable sulfite-reducing clostridia (SRC).<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Results of this study demonstrate that indicator-based screening (such as SRC enumeration) even if it had been in place before the outbreak, would not have prevented its occurrence. Positive linkage of an infant botulism outbreak to PIF should compel manufacturers to recognize\n                      <jats:italic>C. botulinum<\/jats:italic>\n                      as a hazard reasonably likely to occur in certain ingredients, necessitating the design and implementation of specific preventative controls.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2026.1800624","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,15]],"date-time":"2026-06-15T05:34:10Z","timestamp":1781501650000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Detection and characterization of Clostridium botulinum isolated from powdered infant formula"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Cesar","family":"Nadala","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"IEH Laboratories and Consulting Group","place":["Lake Forest Park, WA, United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Eni","family":"Themeli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IEH Laboratories and Consulting Group","place":["Lake Forest Park, WA, United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fereidoun","family":"Forghani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IEH Laboratories and Consulting Group","place":["Lake Forest Park, WA, United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Youngsil","family":"Ha","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IEH Laboratories and Consulting Group","place":["Lake Forest Park, WA, United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sukkyun","family":"Han","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IEH Laboratories and Consulting Group","place":["Lake Forest Park, WA, United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anna","family":"Shapovalova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IEH Laboratories and Consulting Group","place":["Lake Forest Park, WA, United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"John","family":"Roach","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IEH Laboratories and Consulting Group","place":["Lake Forest Park, WA, United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Seong Hong","family":"Kim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IEH Laboratories and Consulting Group","place":["Lake Forest Park, WA, United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jennifer L. M.","family":"Thorson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IEH Laboratories and Consulting Group","place":["Lake Forest Park, WA, United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Joo-Young","family":"Lee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IEH Laboratories and Consulting Group","place":["Lake Forest Park, WA, United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Matthew","family":"Spear","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IEH Laboratories and Consulting Group","place":["Lake Forest Park, WA, United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Benjamin","family":"Buhrman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IEH Laboratories and Consulting Group","place":["Lake Forest Park, WA, United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kevin","family":"Chiu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IEH Laboratories and Consulting Group","place":["Lake Forest Park, WA, United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Niall","family":"Mullane","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ByHeart","place":["New York, NY, United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mansour","family":"Samadpour","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IEH Laboratories and Consulting Group","place":["Lake Forest Park, WA, United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","volume-title":"Compendium of methods for the microbiological examination of foods","year":"2015"},{"key":"ref2","volume-title":"Botulism in the United States, 1899\u20131996: handbook for epidemiologists, clinicians, and laboratory workers","year":"1998"},{"key":"ref3","year":"2008"},{"key":"ref4","volume-title":"Food microbiology: fundamentals and frontiers","author":"Doyle","year":"2013"},{"key":"ref5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"306","DOI":"10.1007\/s00284-024-03828-0","article-title":"Infant botulism: in search of Clostridium botulinum spores","volume":"81","author":"Harris","year":"2024","journal-title":"Curr. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1201\/9781315139623","article-title":"Clostridium botulinum: ecology and control in foods","volume":"10","author":"Hauschild","year":"1993","journal-title":"Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref7","year":"2014"},{"key":"ref8","volume-title":"Microbiology of the food chain\u2014horizontal method for the detection and enumeration of","year":"2023"},{"key":"ref9","volume-title":"Microbiology of food and animal feed\u2014polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for the detection of food-borne pathogens\u2014detection of","year":"2013"},{"key":"ref10","year":"2004"},{"key":"ref11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"298","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.19.2.298-314.2006","article-title":"Laboratory diagnostics of botulism","volume":"19","author":"Lindstr\u00f6m","year":"2006","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1016\/S0065-2911(09)05503-9","article-title":"Biology and genomic analysis of Clostridium botulinum","volume":"55","author":"Peck","year":"2009","journal-title":"Adv. Microb. Physiol."},{"key":"ref13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxicon.2013.05.003","article-title":"Genetic characteristics of toxigenic Clostridia and toxin gene evolution","volume":"75","author":"Popoff","year":"2013","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"key":"ref14","volume-title":"Bacteriological analytical manual (BAM), chapter 17:","year":"2025"}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Microbiology"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fmicb.2026.1800624\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,15]],"date-time":"2026-06-15T05:34:11Z","timestamp":1781501651000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fmicb.2026.1800624\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,15]]},"references-count":14,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fmicb.2026.1800624"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fmicb.2026.1800624","relation":{},"ISSN":["1664-302X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1664-302X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,15]]},"article-number":"1800624"}}