{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,14]],"date-time":"2026-04-14T06:40:22Z","timestamp":1776148822246,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":53,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,14]],"date-time":"2026-04-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1776124800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Microbiol."],"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Introduction<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA)\u2014a widely applied dental resin-based material\u2014contributes to oral PMMA microplastics (PMMA-MPs) exposure through masticating. PMMA-MPs may facilitate pathogen adhesion, posing substantial risks to oral health. Dental caries represents the most prevalent chronic infectious oral disease, characterized by progressive lesions that may induce pain, tooth structure loss, and compromised masticatory efficiency.\n                      <jats:italic>Streptococcus mutans<\/jats:italic>\n                      have been widely identified as the primary etiological agents responsible for caries pathogenesis. This study aimed to investigate the effects of PMMA-MPs on oral microbiota closely associated with dental caries.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      The impacts of PMMA-MPs were assessed using a standardized murine oral exposure model, followed by the quantification of PMMA-MPs-associated shifts in oral microbiota using high-throughput 16S rRNA gene sequencing. Compared with the control group, PMMA-MPs significantly altered the diversity of oral microbial communities in mice, with a notable increase in the relative abundance of\n                      <jats:italic>Streptococcus<\/jats:italic>\n                      . Based on the 16S sequencing results,\n                      <jats:italic>S. mutans<\/jats:italic>\n                      was selected for subsequent\n                      <jats:italic>in vitro<\/jats:italic>\n                      experiments.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      PMMA-MPs markedly enhanced the growth, biofilm formation, and virulence factor synthesis of\n                      <jats:italic>S. mutans<\/jats:italic>\n                      . Transcriptomic analysis revealed that PMMA-MPs may promote biofilm formation through pathways including ABC transporters, quorum sensing, and purine metabolism. Additionally, PMMA-MPs exposure enhanced bacterial antibiotic tolerance.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Discussion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Overall, our results revealed that PMMA-MPs can alter the composition of the oral microbial community, while enhancing both the virulence factors and antibiotic tolerance of\n                      <jats:italic>S. mutans<\/jats:italic>\n                      biofilms.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2026.1811667","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,14]],"date-time":"2026-04-14T05:40:15Z","timestamp":1776145215000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Polymethyl methacrylate microplastics affect oral microbiota diversity and Streptococcus mutans biofilm formation"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Bing","family":"Yang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Nanjing Stomatological Hospital, Affiliated Hospital of Medical School, Institute of Stomatology, Nanjing University","place":["Nanjing, China"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ziyv","family":"Wu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nanjing Stomatological Hospital, Affiliated Hospital of Medical School, Institute of Stomatology, Nanjing University","place":["Nanjing, China"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Xing","family":"Cui","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nanjing Stomatological Hospital, Affiliated Hospital of Medical School, Institute of Stomatology, Nanjing University","place":["Nanjing, China"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yingjie","family":"Yi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nanjing Stomatological Hospital, Affiliated Hospital of Medical School, Institute of Stomatology, Nanjing University","place":["Nanjing, China"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Faming","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Oral & Maxillofacial Reconstruction and Regeneration, National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases, Shaanxi International Joint Research Center for Oral Diseases, Department of Periodontology, School of Stomatology, The Fourth Military Medical University","place":["Xi\u2019an, China"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Guofeng","family":"Wu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nanjing Stomatological Hospital, Affiliated Hospital of Medical School, Institute of Stomatology, Nanjing University","place":["Nanjing, China"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/microbiolspec.GPP3-0042-2018","article-title":"Biology of oral streptococci","volume":"6","author":"Abranches","year":"2018","journal-title":"Microbiol. Spectrum"},{"key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"14434","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.172501299","article-title":"Genome sequence of Streptococcus mutans Ua159, a cariogenic dental pathogen","volume":"99","author":"Ajdi\u0107","year":"2002","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"177611","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2024.177611","article-title":"Contribution of chemical toxicity to the overall toxicity of microplastic particles: a review","volume":"957","author":"Boh\u00e1\u010dkov\u00e1","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1039\/c3en00029j","article-title":"Iron oxide nanoparticles induce Pseudomonas aeruginosa growth, induce biofilm formation, and inhibit antimicrobial peptide function","volume":"1","author":"Borcherding","year":"2014","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Nano"},{"key":"ref5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"110202","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2021.110202","article-title":"Dysregulation of Streptococcus pneumoniae zinc homeostasis breaks ampicillin resistance in a pneumonia infection model","volume":"38","author":"Brazel","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cell Rep."},{"key":"ref6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"14056","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-93425-z","article-title":"In-vivo-wear in composite and ceramic full mouth rehabilitations over 3 years","volume":"11","author":"Burian","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1136\/gutjnl-2015-310545","article-title":"Dual role of Helicobacter and Campylobacter species in Ibd: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"66","author":"Casta\u00f1o-Rodr\u00edguez","year":"2017","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"138463","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2025.138463","article-title":"Release of microplastics during dental procedures and denture wear: impact on dental personnel and patients","volume":"494","author":"Chen","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater."},{"key":"ref9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"113809","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2022.113809","article-title":"Polyvinyl chloride microplastics induced gut barrier dysfunction, microbiota dysbiosis and metabolism disorder in adult mice","volume":"241","author":"Chen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf."},{"key":"ref10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"158731","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2022.158731","article-title":"Comprehensive in vitro polymer type, concentration, and size correlation analysis to microplastic toxicity and inflammation","volume":"854","author":"Da Silva Brito","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"113892","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2019.113892","article-title":"Microplastic particles increase arsenic toxicity to rice seedlings","volume":"259","author":"Dong","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"124087","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2024.124087","article-title":"Unravelling the microplastic menace: different polymers additively increase bee vulnerability","volume":"352","author":"Ferrante","year":"2024","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2273567","DOI":"10.1080\/21505594.2023.2273567","article-title":"Potential of phage depolymerase for the treatment of bacterial biofilms","volume":"14","author":"Guo","year":"2023","journal-title":"Virulence"},{"key":"ref14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"426","DOI":"10.1038\/s41577-020-00488-6","article-title":"Local and systemic mechanisms linking periodontal disease and inflammatory comorbidities","volume":"21","author":"Hajishengallis","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1186\/s12989-020-00387-7","article-title":"Immunotoxicity and intestinal effects of nano- and microplastics: a review of the literature","volume":"17","author":"Hirt","year":"2020","journal-title":"Part. Fibre Toxicol."},{"key":"ref16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"133950","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2024.133950","article-title":"Polystyrene nanoparticles induce biofilm formation in Pseudomonas aeruginosa","volume":"469","author":"Huang","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater."},{"key":"ref17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"127207","DOI":"10.1016\/j.micres.2022.127207","article-title":"Metagenomic insights into taxonomic, functional diversity and inhibitors of microbial biofilms","volume":"265","author":"Imchen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Microbiol. Res."},{"key":"ref18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"308","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2018.08.353","article-title":"Impacts of polystyrene microplastic on the gut barrier, microbiota and metabolism of mice","volume":"649","author":"Jin","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"154720","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2022.154720","article-title":"Enrichment and dissemination of bacterial pathogens by microplastics in the aquatic environment","volume":"830","author":"Junaid","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1111\/eos.12527","article-title":"The oral microbiome \u2013 friend or foe?","volume":"126","author":"Kilian","year":"2018","journal-title":"Eur. J. Oral Sci."},{"key":"ref21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2015.00010","article-title":"Streptococcus mutans-derived extracellular matrix in cariogenic oral biofilms","volume":"5","author":"Klein","year":"2015","journal-title":"Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"112","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2014.00112","article-title":"How microorganisms use hydrophobicity and what does this mean for human needs?","volume":"4","author":"Krasowska","year":"2014","journal-title":"Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"499","DOI":"10.1007\/s10096-013-1993-7","article-title":"The virulence of Streptococcus mutans and the ability to form biofilms","volume":"33","author":"Krzy\u015bciak","year":"2014","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1183","DOI":"10.1007\/s11274-010-0566-5","article-title":"The influence of cell immobilization by biofilm forming on the biodegradation capabilities of bacterial consortia","volume":"27","author":"\u0141awniczak","year":"2011","journal-title":"World J. Microbiol. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/microbiolspec.GPP3-0051-2018","article-title":"The biology of Streptococcus mutans","volume":"7","author":"Lemos","year":"2019","journal-title":"Microbiol. Spectrum"},{"key":"ref26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3224","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2018.03224","article-title":"A GntR family transcription factor in Streptococcus mutans regulates biofilm formation and expression of multiple sugar transporter genes","volume":"9","author":"Li","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"139151","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2023.139151","article-title":"New insight into the effect of microplastics on antibiotic resistance and bacterial community of biofilm","volume":"335","author":"Li","year":"2023","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"667","DOI":"10.1080\/1040841x.2021.1915959","article-title":"Inhibition of Streptococcus mutans biofilm formation by strategies targeting the metabolism of exopolysaccharides","volume":"47","author":"Lin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"123682","DOI":"10.1016\/j.watres.2025.123682","article-title":"Deciphering membrane biofouling induced by micro\u2212\/nano-plastics in nanofiltration: metagenomic insights and spacer-driven mitigations","volume":"281","author":"Liu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Water Res."},{"key":"ref30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1016\/j.freeradbiomed.2013.07.036","article-title":"The thioredoxin antioxidant system","volume":"66","author":"Lu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Free Radic. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1535539","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2025.1535539","article-title":"Exploration of the primary antibiofilm substance and mechanism employed by Lactobacillus salivarius Atcc 11741 to inhibit biofilm of Streptococcus mutans","volume":"15","author":"Ma","year":"2025","journal-title":"Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2089","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-80708-0","article-title":"Understanding the interactions of poly(methyl methacrylate) and poly(vinyl chloride) nanoparticles with Bhk-21 cell line","volume":"11","author":"Mahadevan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"126858","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2021.126858","article-title":"Combined effects of nanosized polystyrene and erythromycin on bacterial growth and resistance mutations in Escherichia coli","volume":"422","author":"Ning","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater."},{"key":"ref34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"877","DOI":"10.1007\/s10096-015-2323-z","article-title":"Biofilm-specific antibiotic tolerance and resistance","volume":"34","author":"Olsen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1038\/s41368-022-00163-7","article-title":"Oral microbiota in human systematic diseases","volume":"14","author":"Peng","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Oral Sci."},{"key":"ref36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"741","DOI":"10.1093\/gbe\/evu048","article-title":"Phylogenomics and the dynamic genome evolution of the genus Streptococcus","volume":"6","author":"Richards","year":"2014","journal-title":"Genome Biol. Evol."},{"key":"ref37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"117526","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2024.117526","article-title":"The unseen perils of oral-care products generated micro\/nanoplastics on human health","volume":"290","author":"Saha","year":"2025","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf."},{"key":"ref38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.1038\/s41579-024-01126-x","article-title":"Shigella sonnei: epidemiology, evolution, pathogenesis, resistance and host interactions","volume":"23","author":"Scott","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1111\/prd.12393","article-title":"The oral microbiome: role of key organisms and complex networks in oral health and disease","volume":"87","author":"Sedghi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Periodontol."},{"key":"ref40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1451","DOI":"10.1128\/JB.01161-06","article-title":"The Streptococcus mutans vicX gene product modulates gtfB\/C expression, biofilm formation, genetic competence, and oxidative stress tolerance","volume":"189","author":"Senadheera","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Bacteriol."},{"key":"ref41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tim.2014.10.010","article-title":"Solving the etiology of dental caries","volume":"23","author":"Sim\u00f3n-Soro","year":"2015","journal-title":"Trends Microbiol."},{"key":"ref42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"170455","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2024.170455","article-title":"Micro(nano)plastics in human urine: a surprising contrast between Chongqing's urban and rural regions","volume":"917","author":"Song","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"168234","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2023.168234","article-title":"Selection for antimicrobial resistance in the plastisphere","volume":"908","author":"Stevenson","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"112340","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2021.112340","article-title":"Effects induced by polyethylene microplastics oral exposure on colon mucin release, inflammation, gut microflora composition and metabolism in mice","volume":"220","author":"Sun","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf."},{"key":"ref45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e101","DOI":"10.1002\/imt2.101","article-title":"Plastisphere microbiome: methodology, diversity, and functionality","volume":"2","author":"Sun","year":"2023","journal-title":"iMeta"},{"key":"ref46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"861","DOI":"10.1177\/00220345900690030601","article-title":"Mutans streptococci in plaque from margins of amalgam, composite, and glass-ionomer restorations","volume":"69","author":"Svanberg","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Dent. Res."},{"key":"ref47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"108815","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2019.108815","article-title":"Microplastic-induced damage in early embryonal development of sea urchin Sphaerechinus granularis","volume":"179","author":"Trifuoggi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"300","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens11030300","article-title":"Pathogenesis of the Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilm: a review","volume":"11","author":"Tuon","year":"2022","journal-title":"Pathogens"},{"key":"ref49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2163","DOI":"10.1016\/s0140-6736(12)61729-2","article-title":"Years lived with disability (Ylds) for 1160 sequelae of 289 diseases and injuries 1990-2010: a systematic analysis for the global burden of disease study 2010","volume":"380","author":"Vos","year":"2012","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"119192","DOI":"10.1016\/j.watres.2022.119192","article-title":"Deciphering the mechanisms shaping the plastisphere antibiotic resistome on riverine microplastics","volume":"225","author":"Xu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Water Res."},{"key":"ref51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"9293","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-019-04340-w","article-title":"Effects of cerium oxide nanoparticles on bacterial growth and behaviors: induction of biofilm formation and stress response","volume":"26","author":"Xu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. Int."},{"key":"ref52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"132503","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2023.132503","article-title":"Polystyrene microplastics induce size-dependent multi-organ damage in mice: insights into gut microbiota and fecal metabolites","volume":"461","author":"Zhang","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater."},{"key":"ref53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"126157","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2025.126157","article-title":"Unraveling the impact of micro- and nano-sized polymethyl methacrylate on gut microbiota and liver lipid metabolism: insights from oral exposure studies","volume":"373","author":"Zheng","year":"2025","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Microbiology"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fmicb.2026.1811667\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,14]],"date-time":"2026-04-14T05:40:19Z","timestamp":1776145219000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fmicb.2026.1811667\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,14]]},"references-count":53,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fmicb.2026.1811667"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fmicb.2026.1811667","relation":{},"ISSN":["1664-302X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1664-302X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,14]]},"article-number":"1811667"}}