{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,9]],"date-time":"2026-07-09T14:21:51Z","timestamp":1783606911436,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":98,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,8]],"date-time":"2026-07-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1783468800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Microbiol."],"abstract":"<jats:p>Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) have transformed cancer therapy, yet their efficacy can be compromised by systemic antibiotic exposure and the resulting disruption of the gut microbiome. Across several tumor types, antibiotic use near the initiation of ICI therapy has frequently been associated with reduced progression-free and overall survival. Emerging data suggest that, beyond taxonomic shifts, antibiotic exposure is often accompanied by expansion of the gut resistome, the collective pool of antibiotic resistance genes. Antibiotic-associated dysbiosis and resistome enrichment are linked to alterations in short-chain fatty acid production, bile acid signaling, and microbial purine metabolism, pathways known to shape antigen presentation, T-cell differentiation, and immune tone. Accordingly, gut resistome profiling should be considered an emerging candidate biomarker. Potential strategies to restore a favorable gut ecosystem include dietary modulation, microbiome-based therapies such as probiotics or fecal microbiota transplantation, and emerging anti-resistance approaches designed to limit resistome expansion. Together, these findings support a resistome-centered framework for patient stratification and microbiome-targeted interventions in precision immune-oncology.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2026.1835588","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,9]],"date-time":"2026-07-09T14:00:18Z","timestamp":1783605618000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["The gut resistome as a potential determinant of immunotherapy response: antibiotics, immunometabolism, and precision oncology"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Min-Kyung","family":"Joo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Experimental Immunology Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, NIH","place":["Bethesda, MD, United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jihoon","family":"Tak","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anesthesiology, Critical Care and Pain Medicine, McGovern Medical School, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston","place":["Houston, TX, United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Suhyeon","family":"Ha","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatric Surgery, Asan Medical Center Children\u2019s Hospital, University of Ulsan College of Medicine","place":["Seoul, Republic of Korea"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kyung-sik","family":"Yoon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Medicine, Kyung Hee University","place":["Seoul, Republic of Korea"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jung-Man","family":"Namgoong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatric Surgery, Asan Medical Center Children\u2019s Hospital, University of Ulsan College of Medicine","place":["Seoul, Republic of Korea"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hye Ok","family":"Kim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine, College of Medicine, Kyung Hee University","place":["Seoul, Republic of Korea"]},{"name":"Clinical Research Institute, Kyung Hee University Medical Center","place":["Seoul, Republic of Korea"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.2217\/imt.15.106","article-title":"CD73-adenosine: A next-generation target in immuno-oncology.","volume":"8","author":"Allard","year":"2016","journal-title":"Immunotherapy"},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1415093","DOI":"10.3389\/fmed.2024.1415093","article-title":"The impact of antibiotic use in gastrointestinal tumors treated with immune checkpoint inhibitors: Systematic review and meta-analysis.","volume":"11","author":"Alotaibi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Front. Med."},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"602","DOI":"10.1126\/science.abb5920","article-title":"Fecal microbiota transplant promotes response in immunotherapy-refractory melanoma patients.","volume":"371","author":"Baruch","year":"2021","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"582","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ccell.2019.10.007","article-title":"Adenosine metabolism: Emerging concepts for cancer therapy.","volume":"36","author":"Boison","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cancer Cell"},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"570","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2017.04.004","article-title":"Metabolic instruction of immunity.","volume":"169","author":"Buck","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1038\/nature13828","article-title":"Precision microbiome reconstitution restores bile acid mediated resistance to Clostridium difficile.","volume":"517","author":"Buffie","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"nzy005","DOI":"10.1093\/cdn\/nzy005","article-title":"Health effects and sources of prebiotic dietary fiber.","volume":"2","author":"Carlson","year":"2018","journal-title":"Curr. Dev. Nutr."},{"key":"B8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"113536","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejca.2024.113536","article-title":"Association of antibiotic treatment with survival outcomes in treatment-na\u00efve melanoma patients receiving immune checkpoint blockade.","volume":"200","author":"Chorti","year":"2024","journal-title":"Eur. J. Cancer"},{"key":"B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e011281","DOI":"10.1136\/jitc-2024-011281","article-title":"Unlocking the power of the microbiome for successful cancer immunotherapy.","volume":"13","author":"Clavijo-Salomon","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Immunother. Cancer"},{"key":"B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1075593","DOI":"10.3389\/fonc.2023.1075593","article-title":"A systematic review and meta-analysis evaluating the impact of antibiotic use on the clinical outcomes of cancer patients treated with immune checkpoint inhibitors.","volume":"13","author":"Crespin","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front. Oncol."},{"key":"B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"595","DOI":"10.1126\/science.abf3363","article-title":"Fecal microbiota transplant overcomes resistance to anti-PD-1 therapy in melanoma patients.","volume":"371","author":"Davar","year":"2021","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"730","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-019-0437-z","article-title":"Engineered bacteriophages for treatment of a patient with a disseminated drug-resistant Mycobacterium abscessus.","volume":"25","author":"Dedrick","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"B13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2560","DOI":"10.1111\/1759-7714.15490","article-title":"Impact of antibiotic on efficacy and adverse reactions of chemoimmunotherapy in non-small cell lung cancer patients: A retrospective cohort study.","volume":"15","author":"Deng","year":"2024","journal-title":"Thorac. Cancer"},{"key":"B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1437","DOI":"10.1093\/annonc\/mdy103","article-title":"Negative association of antibiotics on clinical activity of immune checkpoint inhibitors in patients with advanced renal cell and non-small-cell lung cancer.","volume":"29","author":"Derosa","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ann. Oncol."},{"key":"B15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2478317","DOI":"10.1080\/07853890.2025.2478317","article-title":"Exploring the role of gut microbiota in antibiotic resistance and prevention.","volume":"57","author":"Dongre","year":"2025","journal-title":"Ann. Med."},{"key":"B16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"115276","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopha.2023.115276","article-title":"The impact of microbiota-derived short-chain fatty acids on macrophage activities in disease: Mechanisms and therapeutic potentials.","volume":"165","author":"Duan","year":"2023","journal-title":"Biomed. Pharmacother."},{"key":"B17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e1568812","DOI":"10.1080\/2162402x.2019.1568812","article-title":"Antibiotics are associated with decreased progression-free survival of advanced melanoma patients treated with immune checkpoint inhibitors.","volume":"8","author":"Elkrief","year":"2019","journal-title":"Oncoimmunology"},{"key":"B18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1038\/s41698-024-00630-w","article-title":"Antibiotics are associated with worse outcomes in lung cancer patients treated with chemotherapy and immunotherapy.","volume":"8","author":"Elkrief","year":"2024","journal-title":"NPJ Precis. Oncol."},{"key":"B19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"615","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-micro-041522-100126","article-title":"The central role of gut microbes in host purine homeostasis.","volume":"79","author":"Emery","year":"2025","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"B20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"160.e11","DOI":"10.1016\/j.urolonc.2023.11.017","article-title":"Antibiotic use reduces the efficacy of immune checkpoint inhibitors in patients with urothelial carcinoma: A systematic review and meta-analysis.","volume":"42","author":"Febriyanto","year":"2024","journal-title":"Urol. Oncol."},{"key":"B21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"446","DOI":"10.1038\/nature12721","article-title":"Commensal microbe-derived butyrate induces the differentiation of colonic regulatory T cells.","volume":"504","author":"Furusawa","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"B22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0080421","DOI":"10.1128\/Spectrum.00804-21","article-title":"The de novo purine biosynthesis pathway is the only commonly regulated cellular pathway during biofilm formation in tsb-based medium in staphylococcus aureus and Enterococcus faecalis.","volume":"9","author":"G\u00e9linas","year":"2021","journal-title":"Microbiol. Spectr."},{"key":"B23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"949033","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.949033","article-title":"Bile acids in immunity: Bidirectional mediators between the host and the microbiota.","volume":"13","author":"Godlewska","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"B24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aan4236","article-title":"Gut microbiome modulates response to anti-PD-1 immunotherapy in melanoma patients.","volume":"359","author":"Gopalakrishnan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"B25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2946","DOI":"10.3892\/ol.2019.9899","article-title":"Impact of prior antibiotic use on the efficacy of nivolumab for non-small cell lung cancer.","volume":"17","author":"Hakozaki","year":"2019","journal-title":"Oncol. Lett."},{"key":"B26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-019-1785-z","article-title":"Bile acid metabolites control T(H)17 and T(reg) cell differentiation.","volume":"576","author":"Hang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"B27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"113643","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2023.113643","article-title":"Intercellular crosstalk shapes purinergic metabolism and signaling in cancer cells.","volume":"43","author":"Hesse","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cell Rep."},{"key":"B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"878","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaad.2024.10.083","article-title":"A retrospective.","volume":"92","author":"Hirner","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Am. Acad. Dermatol."},{"key":"B29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"540","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eururo.2020.06.061","article-title":"Concomitant antibiotic use and survival in urothelial carcinoma treated with atezolizumab.","volume":"78","author":"Hopkins","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. Urol."},{"key":"B30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2709","DOI":"10.21037\/apm-20-2076","article-title":"Antibiotic exposure windows and the efficacy of immune checkpoint blockers in patients with cancer: A meta-analysis.","volume":"10","author":"Huang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ann. Palliat Med."},{"key":"B31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e1665973","DOI":"10.1080\/2162402x.2019.1665973","article-title":"Antibiotic use and the efficacy of immune checkpoint inhibitors in cancer patients: A pooled analysis of 2740 cancer patients.","volume":"8","author":"Huang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Oncoimmunology"},{"key":"B32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"834.e21","DOI":"10.1016\/j.urolonc.2021.05.033","article-title":"Antibiotic use and survival of patients receiving pembrolizumab for chemotherapy-resistant metastatic urothelial carcinoma.","volume":"39","author":"Ishiyama","year":"2021","journal-title":"Urol. Oncol."},{"key":"B33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1378900","DOI":"10.3389\/fgene.2024.1378900","article-title":"Gut resistome of NSCLC patients treated with immunotherapy.","volume":"15","author":"Iwan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Front. Genet."},{"key":"B34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"920","DOI":"10.3390\/cells14120920","article-title":"Roles of bile acid-activated receptors in monocytes-macrophages and dendritic cells.","volume":"14","author":"Jia","year":"2025","journal-title":"Cells"},{"key":"B35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1038\/s44259-025-00112-4","article-title":"Antibiotic potentiators as a promising strategy for combating antibiotic resistance.","volume":"3","author":"Joseph","year":"2025","journal-title":"NPJ Antimicrob. Resist."},{"key":"B36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/19490976.2021.1900995","article-title":"Expansion and persistence of antibiotic-specific resistance genes following antibiotic treatment.","volume":"13","author":"Kang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Gut Microbes"},{"key":"B37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"341","DOI":"10.1038\/s41423-023-00987-1","article-title":"Complex regulatory effects of gut microbial short-chain fatty acids on immune tolerance and autoimmunity.","volume":"20","author":"Kim","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cell Mol. Immunol."},{"key":"B38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.1038\/s12276-021-00569-z","article-title":"Antibiotic resistome from the One-Health perspective: Understanding and controlling antimicrobial resistance transmission.","volume":"53","author":"Kim","year":"2021","journal-title":"Exp. Mol. Med."},{"key":"B39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"102099","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cbpa.2021.102099","article-title":"New potentiators of ineffective antibiotics: Targeting the Gram-negative outer membrane to overcome intrinsic resistance.","volume":"66","author":"Klobucar","year":"2022","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Chem. Biol."},{"key":"B40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1332","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2016.05.041","article-title":"From dietary fiber to host physiology: Short-chain fatty acids as key bacterial metabolites.","volume":"165","author":"Koh","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"B41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"487","DOI":"10.1016\/s1473-3099(18)30731-x","article-title":"Use of ribaxamase (SYN-004), a \u03b2-lactamase, to prevent Clostridium difficile infection in \u03b2-lactam-treated patients: A double-blind, phase 2b, randomised placebo-controlled trial.","volume":"19","author":"Kokai-Kun","year":"2019","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"B42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e02197-16","DOI":"10.1128\/aac.02197-16","article-title":"The Oral \u03b2-Lactamase SYN-004 (Ribaxamase) degrades ceftriaxone excreted into the intestine in phase 2a clinical studies.","volume":"61","author":"Kokai-Kun","year":"2017","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"B43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2019.01.014","article-title":"Phage therapy: A renewed approach to combat antibiotic-resistant bacteria.","volume":"25","author":"Kortright","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"B44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"372","DOI":"10.1016\/j.euo.2019.09.001","article-title":"Effect of antibiotic use on outcomes with systemic therapies in metastatic renal cell carcinoma.","volume":"3","author":"Lalani","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. Urol. Oncol."},{"key":"B45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1186\/s40168-017-0387-y","article-title":"In-depth resistome analysis by targeted metagenomics.","volume":"6","author":"Lanza","year":"2018","journal-title":"Microbiome"},{"key":"B46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2172671","DOI":"10.1080\/19490976.2023.2172671","article-title":"Bile acids as modulators of gut microbiota composition and function.","volume":"15","author":"Larabi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Gut Microbes"},{"key":"B47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1038\/s41522-025-00786-8","article-title":"Gut microbiota shapes cancer immunotherapy responses.","volume":"11","author":"Lei","year":"2025","journal-title":"NPJ Biofilms Microb."},{"key":"B48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1186\/s12943-025-02521-5","article-title":"Gut microbial metabolites in cancer immunomodulation.","volume":"25","author":"Liu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Mol. Cancer"},{"key":"B49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1186892","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2023.1186892","article-title":"Regulation of short-chain fatty acids in the immune system.","volume":"14","author":"Liu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"B50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"408","DOI":"10.1111\/jcpt.13298","article-title":"Association of prior fluoroquinolone treatment with survival outcomes of immune checkpoint inhibitors in Asia.","volume":"46","author":"Lu","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Clin. Pharm. Ther."},{"key":"B51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e1004235","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.1004235","article-title":"Impact of antibiotics on gut microbiome composition and resistome in the first years of life in low- to middle-income countries: A systematic review.","volume":"20","author":"Luchen","year":"2023","journal-title":"PLoS Med."},{"key":"B52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1065004","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.1065004","article-title":"The negative effect of antibiotics on RCC patients with immunotherapy: A systematic review and meta-analysis.","volume":"13","author":"Luo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"B53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1842","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-025-56934-3","article-title":"Exploring the principles behind antibiotics with limited resistance.","volume":"16","author":"Maharramov","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"B54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"551","DOI":"10.37201\/req\/040.2022","article-title":"Impact of the use of antibiotics on the clinical response to immune checkpoint inhibitors in patients with non-small cell lung cancer.","volume":"35","author":"Martinez-Mugica Barbosa","year":"2022","journal-title":"Rev. Esp. Quimioter."},{"key":"B55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"104","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aao3290","article-title":"The commensal microbiome is associated with anti-PD-1 efficacy in metastatic melanoma patients.","volume":"359","author":"Matson","year":"2018","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"B56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3348","DOI":"10.1128\/aac.00419-13","article-title":"The comprehensive antibiotic resistance database.","volume":"57","author":"McArthur","year":"2013","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"B57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mucimm.2022.11.001","article-title":"Immunometabolism and microbial metabolites at the gut barrier: Lessons for therapeutic intervention in inflammatory bowel disease.","volume":"16","author":"Michaels","year":"2023","journal-title":"Mucosal Immunol."},{"key":"B58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"162","DOI":"10.1093\/jnci\/djaa057","article-title":"Association of antibiotic exposure with survival and toxicity in patients with melanoma receiving immunotherapy.","volume":"113","author":"Mohiuddin","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Natl. Cancer Inst."},{"key":"B59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1092556","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2022.1092556","article-title":"\u03b2-Lactam potentiators to re-sensitize resistant pathogens: Discovery, development, clinical use and the way forward.","volume":"13","author":"Narendrakumar","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"B60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"102585","DOI":"10.1016\/j.arr.2024.102585","article-title":"Fecal microbiota transplantation, a tool to transfer healthy longevity.","volume":"103","author":"Novelle","year":"2025","journal-title":"Ageing Res. Rev."},{"key":"B61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1186\/s12885-022-09210-2","article-title":"Effect of prior antibiotic or chemotherapy treatment on immunotherapy response in non-small cell lung cancer.","volume":"22","author":"Nyein","year":"2022","journal-title":"BMC Cancer"},{"key":"B62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejca.2021.02.040","article-title":"The effects of antibiotics on the efficacy of immune checkpoint inhibitors in patients with non-small-cell lung cancer differ based on PD-L1 expression.","volume":"149","author":"Ochi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur. J. Cancer"},{"key":"B63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"304","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2014.00304","article-title":"Extracellular adenosine-mediated modulation of regulatory T cells.","volume":"5","author":"Ohta","year":"2014","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"B64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"535","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aad9382","article-title":"Resurrecting the intestinal microbiota to combat antibiotic-resistant pathogens.","volume":"352","author":"Pamer","year":"2016","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"B65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"11055","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M117.784322","article-title":"Farnesoid X receptor induces Takeda G-protein receptor 5 cross-talk to regulate bile acid synthesis and hepatic metabolism.","volume":"292","author":"Pathak","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"B66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"633","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2013.04.005","article-title":"Metabolic pathways in immune cell activation and quiescence.","volume":"38","author":"Pearce","year":"2013","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"B67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100773","DOI":"10.1016\/j.medj.2025.100773","article-title":"Microbiota-derived metabolites: Key modulators of cancer immunotherapies.","volume":"6","author":"Perl","year":"2025","journal-title":"Med"},{"key":"B68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1458","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm9051458","article-title":"Survival of patients treated with antibiotics and immunotherapy for cancer: A systematic review and meta-analysis.","volume":"9","author":"Petrelli","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Clin. Med."},{"key":"B69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5369","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers14215369","article-title":"A clinical outcome of the Anti-PD-1 Therapy of melanoma in polish patients is mediated by population-specific gut microbiome composition.","volume":"14","author":"Pietrzak","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cancers"},{"key":"B70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1774","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaoncol.2019.2785","article-title":"Association of prior antibiotic treatment with survival and response to immune checkpoint inhibitor therapy in patients with cancer.","volume":"5","author":"Pinato","year":"2019","journal-title":"JAMA Oncol."},{"key":"B71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"686","DOI":"10.1093\/jnci\/djac019","article-title":"The association between antibiotic use and outcome among metastatic melanoma patients receiving immunotherapy.","volume":"114","author":"Poizeau","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Natl. Cancer Inst."},{"key":"B72","first-page":"3175","article-title":"Different classes of antibiotics exhibit disparate negative impacts on the therapeutic efficacy of immune checkpoint inhibitors in advanced non-small cell lung cancer patients.","volume":"12","author":"Qiu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Am. J. Cancer Res."},{"key":"B73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1054555","DOI":"10.3389\/fnut.2023.1054555","article-title":"Potential influence of antimicrobial resistance gene content in probiotic bacteria on the gut resistome ecosystems.","volume":"10","author":"Radovanovic","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front. Nutrit."},{"key":"B74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1350","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aar4060","article-title":"Cancer immunotherapy using checkpoint blockade.","volume":"359","author":"Ribas","year":"2018","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"B75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1080\/19490976.2015.1127483","article-title":"Consequences of bile salt biotransformations by intestinal bacteria.","volume":"7","author":"Ridlon","year":"2016","journal-title":"Gut Microbes"},{"key":"B76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aan3706","article-title":"Gut microbiome influences efficacy of PD-1-based immunotherapy against epithelial tumors.","volume":"359","author":"Routy","year":"2018","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"B77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2552","DOI":"10.1111\/1759-7714.13573","article-title":"Antibiotics impair immune checkpoint inhibitor effectiveness in Hispanic patients with non-small cell lung cancer (AB-CLICaP).","volume":"11","author":"Ruiz-Pati\u00f1o","year":"2020","journal-title":"Thorac. Cancer"},{"key":"B78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"952","DOI":"10.1093\/oncolo\/oyac162","article-title":"Antibiotic exposure does not impact immune checkpoint blockade response in MSI-H\/dMMR metastatic colorectal cancer: A single-center experience.","volume":"27","author":"Serpas Higbie","year":"2022","journal-title":"Oncologist"},{"key":"B79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2020.00025","article-title":"The role of short-chain fatty acids from gut microbiota in gut-brain communication.","volume":"11","author":"Silva","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Endocrinol."},{"key":"B80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1825","DOI":"10.1038\/s41416-020-01082-2","article-title":"Antibiotic use and risk of colorectal cancer: A systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis.","volume":"123","author":"Simin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Br. J. Cancer"},{"key":"B81","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"345","DOI":"10.4103\/ijmr.IJMR_1979_17","article-title":"The human gut resistome: Current concepts & future prospects.","volume":"150","author":"Singh","year":"2019","journal-title":"Indian J. Med. Res."},{"key":"B82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1084","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aac4255","article-title":"Commensal Bifidobacterium promotes antitumor immunity and facilitates anti-PD-L1 efficacy.","volume":"350","author":"Sivan","year":"2015","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"B83","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"569","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1241165","article-title":"The microbial metabolites, short-chain fatty acids, regulate colonic Treg cell homeostasis.","volume":"341","author":"Smith","year":"2013","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"B84","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"410","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-019-1865-0","article-title":"Microbial bile acid metabolites modulate gut ROR\u03b3(+) regulatory T cell homeostasis.","volume":"577","author":"Song","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"B85","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"600","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-019-0878-z","article-title":"A defined commensal consortium elicits CD8 T cells and anti-cancer immunity.","volume":"565","author":"Tanoue","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"B86","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3114","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms4114","article-title":"Antibiotic-induced shifts in the mouse gut microbiome and metabolome increase susceptibility to Clostridium difficile infection.","volume":"5","author":"Theriot","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"B87","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1186\/s13099-026-00795-8","article-title":"Broad-spectrum antibiotic treatment reshapes the gut microbiome, resistome, and colonization potential of opportunistic pathogens: A metagenomics study.","volume":"18","author":"Tigabu","year":"2026","journal-title":"Gut Pathog"},{"key":"B88","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1412","DOI":"10.1136\/gutjnl-2021-326264","article-title":"Cancer pharmacomicrobiomics: Targeting microbiota to optimise cancer therapy outcomes.","volume":"71","author":"Ting","year":"2022","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"B89","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"142","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijid.2021.03.063","article-title":"Use of antibiotics is associated with worse clinical outcomes in patients with cancer treated with immune checkpoint inhibitors: A systematic review and meta-analysis.","volume":"106","author":"Tsikala-Vafea","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"B90","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4332","DOI":"10.1172\/jci43918","article-title":"Vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus domination of intestinal microbiota is enabled by antibiotic treatment in mice and precedes bloodstream invasion in humans.","volume":"120","author":"Ubeda","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Clin. Invest."},{"key":"B91","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"20140087","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2014.0087","article-title":"The human gut resistome.","volume":"370","author":"van Schaik","year":"2015","journal-title":"Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B: Biol. Sci."},{"key":"B92","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1079","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aad1329","article-title":"Anticancer immunotherapy by CTLA-4 blockade relies on the gut microbiota.","volume":"350","author":"V\u00e9tizou","year":"2015","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"B93","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"343","DOI":"10.1007\/s00262-019-02453-2","article-title":"The effect of antibiotics on clinical outcomes in immune-checkpoint blockade: A systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies.","volume":"69","author":"Wilson","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cancer Immunol. Immunother."},{"key":"B94","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1038\/nrmicro1614","article-title":"The antibiotic resistome: The nexus of chemical and genetic diversity.","volume":"5","author":"Wright","year":"2007","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"B95","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1012","DOI":"10.1038\/s41423-025-01326-2","article-title":"The gut microbiota in cancer immunity and immunotherapy.","volume":"22","author":"Xie","year":"2025","journal-title":"Cell. Mol. Immunol."},{"key":"B96","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2640","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dks261","article-title":"Identification of acquired antimicrobial resistance genes.","volume":"67","author":"Zankari","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"B97","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lungcan.2019.01.017","article-title":"Antibiotics are associated with attenuated efficacy of anti-PD-1\/PD-L1 therapies in Chinese patients with advanced non-small cell lung cancer.","volume":"130","author":"Zhao","year":"2019","journal-title":"Lung Cancer"},{"key":"B98","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1652757","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2025.1652757","article-title":"Geographic patterns of antibiotic resistance in the human gut microbiome: Insights from metagenome-assembled genomes across four Chinese provinces.","volume":"16","author":"Zhou","year":"2025","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Microbiology"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fmicb.2026.1835588\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,9]],"date-time":"2026-07-09T14:00:20Z","timestamp":1783605620000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fmicb.2026.1835588\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,8]]},"references-count":98,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fmicb.2026.1835588"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fmicb.2026.1835588","relation":{},"ISSN":["1664-302X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1664-302X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,8]]},"article-number":"1835588"}}