{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,27]],"date-time":"2026-10-27T16:55:07Z","timestamp":1793120107544,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":39,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,29]],"date-time":"2026-07-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1785283200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Microbiol."],"abstract":"<jats:p>The highly pathogenic avian influenza virus (HPAIV) subtype H5N1 has been continuously circulating among wild bird populations and domestic poultry. It\u2019s ongoing circulation has led to outbreaks in poultry and U.S. dairy cattle populations, as well as sporadic severe infections in individuals engaged in poultry and dairy farming. These occurrences have raised concerns about the potential evolution of this virus into a pandemic strain. To elucidate the molecular determinants facilitating H5N1 cross-species adaptation and to evaluate its implications for public health, we conducted serials of sequence analysis and specific-site mutations on the viral polymerase subunit PB2 to determine its effect on polymerase activity and viral infectivity. The results showed that three mutations in the PB2 protein (E362G, D441N and M631L) were presented cooperative effects associated with enhanced viral replication in mammalian cells. Compared to the original isolated strain of the 2.3.4.4b clade, A\/chicken\/NL\/FAV-0033\/2021, these three mutations were predominantly identified in isolates obtained from cattle and other mammalian hosts between 2021 and 2024. The M631L mutation, identified as the primary determinant of increased polymerase activity in mammalian cells, significantly enhanced the binding affinity of PB2 to ANP32A. The mutation E362G and D441N did not increased polymerase activity and viral replication significantly but enhanced binding affinity of PB2 to ANP32A. The combined mutations with E362G, D441N and M631L resulted in a significantly increased polymerase activity and viral replication in H5N1 virus, and significantly elevated viral loads and aggravated pulmonary pathology in lungs of mice with H5N1 infection. These findings indicate that the PB2-M631L mutation constitutes a crucial molecular marker for the adaptation of H5N1 to mammalian hosts, whereas the E362G and D441N mutations likely function as supportive modulatory factors that optimize this host-adaptation process.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2026.1867604","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,29]],"date-time":"2026-07-29T05:58:22Z","timestamp":1785304702000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Identification and characterization of PB2 mutations associated with mammalian adaptation of highly pathogenic H5N1 avian influenza viruses"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Simin","family":"Cui","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"National Key Laboratory of Intelligent Tracking and Forecasting for Infectious Diseases National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention","place":["Beijing, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xiaoning","family":"Hou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Key Laboratory of Intelligent Tracking and Forecasting for Infectious Diseases National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention","place":["Beijing, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Siyu","family":"Pu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Key Laboratory of Intelligent Tracking and Forecasting for Infectious Diseases National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention","place":["Beijing, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Junhao","family":"Luo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Key Laboratory of Intelligent Tracking and Forecasting for Infectious Diseases National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention","place":["Beijing, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Haijun","family":"Zhu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Key Laboratory of Intelligent Tracking and Forecasting for Infectious Diseases National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention","place":["Beijing, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Peiqing","family":"He","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Key Laboratory of Intelligent Tracking and Forecasting for Infectious Diseases National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention","place":["Beijing, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chen","family":"Gao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Key Laboratory of Intelligent Tracking and Forecasting for Infectious Diseases National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention","place":["Beijing, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rongbao","family":"Gao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Key Laboratory of Intelligent Tracking and Forecasting for Infectious Diseases National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention","place":["Beijing, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jun","family":"Han","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Key Laboratory of Intelligent Tracking and Forecasting for Infectious Diseases National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention","place":["Beijing, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1335","DOI":"10.3201\/eid3007.240508","article-title":"Highly pathogenic avian influenza a(H5N1) clade 2.3.4.4b virus infection in domestic dairy cattle and cats, United States, 2024","volume":"30","author":"Burrough","year":"2024","journal-title":"Emerg. 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