{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,10]],"date-time":"2026-09-10T16:06:15Z","timestamp":1789056375846,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":62,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,10]],"date-time":"2026-09-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1788998400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Microbiol."],"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Introduction<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      There is a rising prevalence of root pathogens of the genus Fusarium on coffee (\n                      <jats:italic>Coffea arabica<\/jats:italic>\n                      ) farms in Saudi Arabia. The current study aimed to explore the antagonistic mechanisms involved in the interaction between four\n                      <jats:italic>Trichoderma<\/jats:italic>\n                      spp. isolated from coffee rhizospheres and two different strains of\n                      <jats:italic>Fusarium<\/jats:italic>\n                      spp., namely\n                      <jats:italic>Fusarium oxysporum and Fusarium brachygibbosum.<\/jats:italic>\n                      The main hypothesis is that the mechanism of action for the\n                      <jats:italic>Trichoderma-Fusarium<\/jats:italic>\n                      interaction involves three distinct and concurrent mechanisms, which include: (i) spatial competition due to differences in growth rates, (ii) production of antifungal metabolites, and (iii) Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC) targeting selected cellular targets within fungi.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      The root system and rhizosphere soil of coffee plants from localities in Al-Baha and Jazan regions (May and August 2023) were examined for the presence of\n                      <jats:italic>Trichoderma<\/jats:italic>\n                      and\n                      <jats:italic>Fusarium<\/jats:italic>\n                      species. Six\n                      <jats:italic>Trichoderma<\/jats:italic>\n                      and\n                      <jats:italic>Fusarium<\/jats:italic>\n                      isolates were identified by molecular analysis using ITS sequencing. The antagonistic activities of the identified isolates were tested using dual culture assays, incubated at 27\u202f\u00b0C for 7 days. The percent mycelial inhibition was calculated. VOCs released by the four\n                      <jats:italic>Trichoderma<\/jats:italic>\n                      species were extracted with ethyl acetate and analysed using GC\u2013MS. The inhibition of fungal growth was explained by hierarchical regression, which partitioned the variance in inhibition by the growth rate of the fungi, VOC diversity, and specific compounds.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      The\n                      <jats:italic>Trichoderma<\/jats:italic>\n                      strains showed 2.6\u20133.2x faster radial growth rate (15\u201319\u202fmm\/day) compared to\n                      <jats:italic>Fusarium<\/jats:italic>\n                      strains (5.9\u20137.9\u202fmm\/day).\n                      <jats:italic>Trichoderma harzianum<\/jats:italic>\n                      404.1 and\n                      <jats:italic>Trichoderma asperellum<\/jats:italic>\n                      J-3 were found to produce the highest inhibition of\n                      <jats:italic>F. brachygibbosum<\/jats:italic>\n                      at 77.4 and 77.6%, respectively (\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u202f&amp;lt;\u202f0.001). This was better than inhibition by the other two strains, such as\n                      <jats:italic>Trichoderma longibrachiatum<\/jats:italic>\n                      and\n                      <jats:italic>Trichoderma koningii,<\/jats:italic>\n                      which inhibited at 73.1 and 75.1%, respectively. Sixty-nine unique VOCs were identified in the four strains using GC\u2013MS. The compounds of mechanism-related relevance included 1,8-cineole (eucalyptol), caryophyllene oxide, 6-pentyl-2H-pyran-2-one (6-PP), and 2-phenylethanol.\n                      <jats:italic>T. harzianum<\/jats:italic>\n                      404.1 showed maximum VOC production, with 20 types, whereas\n                      <jats:italic>T. asperellum<\/jats:italic>\n                      J-3 produced only caryophyllene oxide. Therefore, our proposed mechanistic model involved all three steps: competition of\n                      <jats:italic>Trichoderma<\/jats:italic>\n                      spp. with pathogens for nutrition, emission of different VOCs to affect fungi on different fronts, and release of metabolites such as hexanedioic acid esters and phthalate derivatives, having mycolytic potential.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      These findings provide a mechanistic framework for the development of species-specific\n                      <jats:italic>Trichoderma-<\/jats:italic>\n                      based bio-fungicides and for field validation under Saudi Arabian coffee-producing conditions.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2026.1899216","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,10]],"date-time":"2026-09-10T15:08:52Z","timestamp":1789052932000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Indigenous Trichoderma species multi-mechanistic antagonism against Fusarium root disease in Coffea arabica: volatile-mediated inhibition, morphological, and molecular profiling"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Shroog M.","family":"Al-Shahrani","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Botany and Microbiology, College of Science, King Saud University","place":["Riyadh, Saudi Arabia"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Abdulaziz A.","family":"Al-Askar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Botany and Microbiology, College of Science, King Saud University","place":["Riyadh, Saudi Arabia"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kevin D.","family":"Hyde","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center of Excellence in Fungal Diversity, Mae Fah Luang University","place":["Chiang Rai, Thailand"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fatimah","family":"Al-Otibi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Botany and Microbiology, College of Science, King Saud University","place":["Riyadh, Saudi Arabia"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1093","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules26041093","article-title":"Antifungal properties of essential oils and their compounds for application in skin fungal infections: conventional and nonconventional approaches","volume":"26","author":"Abd Rashed","year":"2021","journal-title":"Molecules"},{"key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s11084-025-09690-9","article-title":"Coffee berry disease: a threat to Arabica coffee production in Ethiopia","volume":"55","author":"Alemu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Discover Life"},{"key":"ref3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1155\/2022\/3050495","article-title":"Fusarium oxysporum and Colletotrichum musae associated with wilt disease of Coffea arabica in coffee gardens in Saudi Arabia","volume":"2022","author":"Al-Faifi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Can. 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