{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,29]],"date-time":"2026-09-29T15:00:18Z","timestamp":1790694018870,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":223,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,29]],"date-time":"2026-09-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790640000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004587","name":"Instituto de Salud Carlos III","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["JR22\/00051"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JR22\/00051"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004587","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004587","name":"Instituto de Salud Carlos III","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["PI24\/01633"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PI24\/01633"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004587","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Microbiol."],"abstract":"<jats:p>Influenza, SARS-CoV2-2 and syncytial respiratory virus infection in adults are major causes of morbidity and mortality. However, the pathophysiological mechanisms underlying these infections remain incompletely understood. Disease severity results from an interaction between viral factors and host responses. Lung damage and respiratory failure are produced by hyperinflammation. Understanding these mechanisms is necessary to improve risk stratification and may guide therapeutic decisions. C- reactive protein (CRP), IL-6, ferritin, and ApoH are relevant biomarkers which can identify inflammatory phenotypes. Antivirals and supportive care are the main approaches for these viral infections. From a therapeutic perspective, broad immunosuppression is unlikely to be optimal, and strategies should focus on selectively modulating harmful inflammation while preserving antiviral immunity. Nevertheless, there is scarce evidence of the best choice of treatment based on the patient\u2019s clinical profile and further studies are needed.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2026.1916526","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,29]],"date-time":"2026-09-29T14:29:24Z","timestamp":1790692164000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Hyperinflammation and immunomodulation in influenza, SARS-CoV-2 and syncytial respiratory virus infection in adults: from innate immune responses and biomarkers to clinical and therapeutic implications"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Jesus","family":"Alonso-Carrillo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Internal Medicine, Hospital Universitario 12 de Octubre","place":["Madrid, Spain"]},{"name":"Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, Complutense University of Madrid","place":["Madrid, Spain"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marta","family":"Obra","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Internal Medicine, Hospital Universitario 12 de Octubre","place":["Madrid, Spain"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mario","family":"Cereza","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Internal Medicine, Hospital Universitario 12 de Octubre","place":["Madrid, Spain"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mar\u00eda","family":"Ruiz-Ruigomez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Internal Medicine, Hospital Universitario 12 de Octubre","place":["Madrid, Spain"]},{"name":"Research Institute Hospital 12 de Octubre (i+12)","place":["Madrid, Spain"]},{"name":"Centro de Investigaciones Biom\u00e9dicas en Red de Enfermedades Infecciosas (CIBERINFEC)","place":["Madrid, Spain"]},{"name":"Unit of Infectious Diseases","place":["Hospital Universitario \u201c12 de Octubre, \u201d Madrid, Spain"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Carlos","family":"Lumbreras","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Internal Medicine, Hospital Universitario 12 de Octubre","place":["Madrid, Spain"]},{"name":"Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, Complutense University of Madrid","place":["Madrid, Spain"]},{"name":"Research Institute Hospital 12 de Octubre (i+12)","place":["Madrid, Spain"]},{"name":"Centro de Investigaciones Biom\u00e9dicas en Red de Enfermedades Infecciosas (CIBERINFEC)","place":["Madrid, Spain"]},{"name":"Unit of Infectious Diseases","place":["Hospital Universitario \u201c12 de Octubre, \u201d Madrid, Spain"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Antonio","family":"Lalueza","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Internal Medicine, Hospital Universitario 12 de Octubre","place":["Madrid, Spain"]},{"name":"Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, Complutense University of Madrid","place":["Madrid, Spain"]},{"name":"Research Institute Hospital 12 de Octubre (i+12)","place":["Madrid, Spain"]},{"name":"Centro de Investigaciones Biom\u00e9dicas en Red de Enfermedades Infecciosas (CIBERINFEC)","place":["Madrid, Spain"]},{"name":"Unit of Infectious Diseases","place":["Hospital Universitario \u201c12 de Octubre, \u201d Madrid, Spain"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1637","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(21)00676-0","article-title":"Tocilizumab in patients admitted to hospital with COVID-19 (RECOVERY): A randomized, controlled, open-label, platform trial.","volume":"397","author":"Abani","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"B2","volume-title":"Basic Immunology: Functions and Disorders of the Immune System","author":"Abbas","year":"2024"},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.22541\/au.169567745.58453484\/v1","article-title":"C-reactive protein is associated with severity in hospitalized children with respiratory syncytial virus bronchiolitis.","volume":"27","author":"Adar","year":"2025","journal-title":"Israel Med. Assoc. J."},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"m3379","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.m3379","article-title":"A living WHO guideline on drugs for covid-19.","volume":"370","author":"Agarwal","year":"2020","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"530","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-2600(25)00055-4","article-title":"Effects of Janus kinase inhibitors in adults admitted to hospital due to COVID-19: A systematic review and individual participant data meta-analysis of randomised clinical trials.","volume":"13","author":"Amstutz","year":"2025","journal-title":"Lancet Respir. Med."},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"809","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1705716","article-title":"Hydrocortisone plus fludrocortisone for adults with septic shock.","volume":"378","author":"Annane","year":"2018","journal-title":"New Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"862","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.288.7.862","article-title":"Effect of treatment with low doses of hydrocortisone and fludrocortisone on mortality in patients with septic shock.","volume":"288","author":"Annane","year":"2002","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"B8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"780","DOI":"10.1159\/000519157","article-title":"Influenza A-associated in-hospital mortality in very older people: Does inflammation also play a role?","volume":"68","author":"Arrieta","year":"2022","journal-title":"Gerontology"},{"key":"B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-67452-6_4","article-title":"Current insights into the host immune response to respiratory viral infections.","volume":"1313","author":"Asha","year":"2021","journal-title":"Adv. Exp. Med. Biol."},{"key":"B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2013.00127","article-title":"Pentraxin 3: An immuno-regulator in the lungs.","volume":"4","author":"Balhara","year":"2013","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"550","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2016.00550","article-title":"The PD1:PD-L1\/2 pathway from discovery to clinical implementation.","volume":"7","author":"Bardhan","year":"2016","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e1009405","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1009405","article-title":"Sequential targeting of interferon pathways for increased host resistance to bacterial superinfection during influenza.","volume":"17","author":"Barman","year":"2021","journal-title":"PLoS Pathogens"},{"key":"B13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"737","DOI":"10.1111\/imcb.12459","article-title":"Interleukin-1\u03b2 exacerbates disease and is a potential therapeutic target to reduce pulmonary inflammation during severe influenza A virus infection.","volume":"99","author":"Bawazeer","year":"2021","journal-title":"Immunol. Cell Biol."},{"key":"B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4307","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.147.12.4307","article-title":"Cytokine (tumor necrosis factor, IL-6, and IL-8) production by respiratory syncytial virus-infected human alveolar macrophages.","volume":"147","author":"Becker","year":"1991","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"B15","volume-title":"Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett\u2019s Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases","author":"Bennett","year":"2020"},{"key":"B16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"452","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2019.00452","article-title":"Contribution of cytokines to tissue damage during human respiratory syncytial virus infection.","volume":"10","author":"Bohmwald","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"B17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e28153","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.28153","article-title":"Clinical outcomes and economic burden of seasonal influenza and other respiratory virus infections in hospitalized adults.","volume":"95","author":"Bolek","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"B18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2036.1996.22164025.x","article-title":"Cytokine modulation by glucocorticoids: Mechanisms and actions in cellular studies.","volume":"10","author":"Brattsand","year":"1996","journal-title":"Alimentary Pharmacol. Therapeutics"},{"key":"B19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"230","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2021.9508","article-title":"Effect of canakinumab vs placebo on survival without invasive mechanical ventilation in patients hospitalized with severe COVID-19: A randomized clinical trial.","volume":"326","author":"Caricchio","year":"2021","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"B20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"148","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2019.00148","article-title":"Corrigendum: Anakinra therapy for non-cancer inflammatory diseases.","volume":"10","author":"Cavalli","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Pharmacol."},{"key":"B21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e751","DOI":"10.1097\/CCM.0000000000001654","article-title":"Treating life-threatening myocarditis by blocking interleukin-1.","volume":"44","author":"Cavalli","year":"2016","journal-title":"Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"B22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e1","DOI":"10.2165\/11599820-000000000-00000","article-title":"Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of canakinumab, a human anti-interleukin-1\u03b2 monoclonal antibody.","volume":"51","author":"Chakraborty","year":"2012","journal-title":"Clin. Pharmacokinetics"},{"key":"B23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"529","DOI":"10.1007\/s00281-017-0629-x","article-title":"Pathogenic human coronavirus infections: Causes and consequences of cytokine storm and immunopathology.","volume":"39","author":"Channappanavar","year":"2017","journal-title":"Semin. Immunopathol."},{"key":"B24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"399","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-59815-9_27","article-title":"Macrophage activation syndrome in the setting of rheumatic diseases","volume-title":"Cytokine Storm Syndrome","author":"Chatham","year":"2024"},{"key":"B25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0228391","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0228391","article-title":"A multi-center randomized prospective study on the treatment of infant bronchiolitis with interferon \u03b11b nebulization.","volume":"15","author":"Chen","year":"2020","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"B26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1155\/2013\/495848","article-title":"IL-1\u03b2 and IL-6 upregulation in children with H1N1 influenza virus infection.","volume":"2013","author":"Chiaretti","year":"2013","journal-title":"Mediators Inflammation"},{"key":"B27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"653","DOI":"10.1097\/00006454-199308000-00006","article-title":"Alpha-2A-interferon for treatment of bronchiolitis caused by respiratory syncytial virus.","volume":"12","author":"Chipps","year":"1993","journal-title":"Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J."},{"key":"B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"510","DOI":"10.1038\/82763","article-title":"IL-6 switches the differentiation of monocytes from dendritic cells to macrophages.","volume":"1","author":"Chomarat","year":"2000","journal-title":"Nat. Immunol."},{"key":"B29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.1038\/s41584-020-0419-z","article-title":"Translating IL-6 biology into effective treatments.","volume":"16","author":"Choy","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Rheumatol."},{"key":"B30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"518","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2020.07.001","article-title":"The role of IL-6 and other mediators in the cytokine storm associated with SARS-CoV-2 infection.","volume":"146","author":"Copaescu","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"B31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e24","DOI":"10.1016\/S2665-9913(21)00315-5","article-title":"Sarilumab in adults hospitalised with moderate-to-severe COVID-19 pneumonia (CORIMUNO-SARI-1): An open-label randomised controlled trial.","volume":"4","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet Rheumatol."},{"key":"B32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"eaao1716","DOI":"10.1126\/scisignal.aao1716","article-title":"The pseudokinase MLKL activates PAD4-dependent NET formation in necroptotic neutrophils.","volume":"11","author":"D\u2019Cruz","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Signaling"},{"key":"B33","unstructured":"SYLVANT (siltuximab) injection: US prescribing information.\n          \n          2024"},{"key":"B34","unstructured":"KINERET (anakinra) Injection: US Prescribing Information."},{"key":"B35","unstructured":"ACTEMRA (tocilizumab) Injection: US Prescribing Information."},{"key":"B36","unstructured":"HEMADY (dexamethasone) Tablets: US Prescribing Information"},{"key":"B37","unstructured":"ILARIS (canakinumab) Injection: US Prescribing Information."},{"key":"B38","unstructured":"OLUMIANT (baricitinib) Tablets: US Prescribing Information."},{"key":"B39","unstructured":"KEVZARA (sarilumab) Injection: US Prescribing Information."},{"key":"B40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e71882","DOI":"10.1002\/hsr2.71882","article-title":"The impact of COVID-19 on obstructive pulmonary diseases: A narrative review of long-term consequences and vaccination strategies.","volume":"9","author":"Dalfardi","year":"2026","journal-title":"Health Sci. Rep."},{"key":"B41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"216","DOI":"10.1111\/tid.12513","article-title":"Corticosteroid use as adjunct therapy for respiratory syncytial virus infection in adult allogeneic stem cell transplant recipients.","volume":"18","author":"Damlaj","year":"2016","journal-title":"Transplant Infect. Dis."},{"key":"B42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"CD015308","DOI":"10.1002\/14651858.CD015308","article-title":"Interleukin-1 blocking agents for treating COVID-19.","volume":"1","author":"Davidson","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cochrane Database Syst. Rev."},{"key":"B43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3864","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms4864","article-title":"Pathogenic potential of interferon \u03b1\u03b2 in acute influenza infection.","volume":"5","author":"Davidson","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"B44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1099","DOI":"10.15252\/emmm.201606413","article-title":"IFN\u03bb is a potent anti-influenza therapeutic without the inflammatory side effects of IFN\u03b1 treatment.","volume":"8","author":"Davidson","year":"2016","journal-title":"EMBO Mol. Med."},{"key":"B45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1203","DOI":"10.1038\/nm1477","article-title":"Fatal outcome of human influenza A (H5N1) is associated with high viral load and hypercytokinemia.","volume":"12","author":"De Jong","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"B46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"CD015050","DOI":"10.1002\/14651858.CD015050","article-title":"Accuracy of routine laboratory tests to predict mortality and deterioration to severe or critical COVID-19 in people with SARS-CoV-2.","volume":"8","author":"De Rop","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cochrane Database Syst. Rev."},{"key":"B47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1427","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-2600(21)00377-5","article-title":"Effect of anti-interleukin drugs in patients with COVID-19 and signs of cytokine release syndrome (COV-AID): A factorial, randomised, controlled trial.","volume":"9","author":"Declercq","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lancet Respir. Med."},{"key":"B48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1931","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2215145","article-title":"Hydrocortisone in severe community-acquired pneumonia.","volume":"388","author":"Dequin","year":"2023","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"B49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"544","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-014-0544-x","article-title":"Social, economic, and health impact of the respiratory syncytial virus: A systematic search.","volume":"14","author":"D\u00edez-Domingo","year":"2014","journal-title":"BMC Infect. Dis."},{"key":"B50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3720","DOI":"10.1182\/blood-2010-07-273417","article-title":"Interleukin-1 in the pathogenesis and treatment of inflammatory diseases.","volume":"117","author":"Dinarello","year":"2011","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"B51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1460","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox10091460","article-title":"Differential redox state and iron regulation in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, acute respiratory distress syndrome and coronavirus disease 2019.","volume":"10","author":"Duca","year":"2021","journal-title":"Antioxidants"},{"key":"B52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1395809","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2024.1395809","article-title":"Respiratory syncytial virus NS1 inhibits anti-viral Interferon-\u03b1-induced JAK\/STAT signaling, by limiting the nuclear translocation of STAT1.","volume":"15","author":"Efstathiou","year":"2024","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"B53","unstructured":"EMA Endorses Use of Dexamethasone in COVID-19 Patients on Oxygen or Mechanical Ventilation\n          \n          2020"},{"key":"B54","unstructured":"Ilaris: European Public Assessment Report.\n          \n          2017"},{"key":"B55","unstructured":"Kevzara: European Public Assessment Report."},{"key":"B56","unstructured":"Kineret: European Public Assessment Report."},{"key":"B57","unstructured":"Olumiant: Withdrawal of Application for Variation to the Marketing Authorisation for COVID-19\n          \n          2023"},{"key":"B58","unstructured":"Rebif (interferon beta-1a): European Public Assessment Report.\n          \n          2019"},{"key":"B59","unstructured":"RoActemra: European Public Assessment Report.\n          \n          2021"},{"key":"B60","unstructured":"Sylvant: European Public Assessment Report.\n          \n          2018"},{"key":"B61","unstructured":"A Study Comparing the Efficacy and Safety of Standard of Care with or Without Siltuximab in Selected Hospitalized Patients with Viral Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (SILVAR). \n          \n          2021"},{"key":"B62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2379","DOI":"10.3390\/v13122379","article-title":"JAK-STAT pathway: A novel target to tackle viral infections.","volume":"13","author":"Ezeonwumelu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Viruses"},{"key":"B63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2255","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMra2026131","article-title":"Cytokine storm.","volume":"383","author":"Fajgenbaum","year":"2020","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"B64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"609","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2207566","article-title":"Efficacy and safety of an Ad26.RSV.preF-RSV preF protein vaccine in older adults.","volume":"388","author":"Falsey","year":"2023","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"B65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"CD004878","DOI":"10.1002\/14651858.CD004878.pub4","article-title":"Glucocorticoids for acute viral bronchiolitis in infants and young children.","volume":"2013","author":"Fernandes","year":"2013","journal-title":"Cochrane Database Syst. Rev."},{"key":"B66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e70784","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.70784","article-title":"Cytokine and endothelial activation patterns related to severe and non-severe respiratory viral infections.","volume":"98","author":"Ferrarese","year":"2026","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"B67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1067285","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2023.1067285","article-title":"Severe influenza infection is associated with inflammatory programmed cell death in infected macrophages.","volume":"13","author":"Ferreira","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol."},{"key":"B68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6178","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms25116178","article-title":"Immune response to respiratory viral infections.","volume":"25","author":"Gambadauro","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Mol. Sci."},{"key":"B69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1443096","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2024.1443096","article-title":"Immune dysregulation is an important factor in the underlying complications in Influenza infection. ApoH, IL-8 and IL-15 as markers of prognosis.","volume":"15","author":"Garcinu\u00f1o","year":"2024","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"B70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1876","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms13081876","article-title":"Immunomodulation in respiratory syncytial virus infection: Mechanisms, therapeutic targets, and clinical implications.","volume":"13","author":"Georgakopoulou","year":"2025","journal-title":"Microorganisms"},{"key":"B71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-2600(23)00408-3","article-title":"Risk factors for COVID-19-associated pulmonary aspergillosis: A systematic review and meta-analysis.","volume":"12","author":"Gioia","year":"2024","journal-title":"Lancet Respiratory Med."},{"key":"B72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"742","DOI":"10.1080\/13696998.2023.2213125","article-title":"Economic burden of respiratory syncytial virus infection in adults: A systematic literature review.","volume":"26","author":"Grace","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Med. Econ."},{"key":"B73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1101\/2020.04.01.20048561","article-title":"Use of siltuximab in patients with COVID-19 pneumonia requiring ventilatory support","author":"Gritti","year":"2020","journal-title":"MedRxiv."},{"key":"B74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1362","DOI":"10.3390\/v13071362","article-title":"The mechanism behind influenza virus cytokine storm.","volume":"13","author":"Gu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Viruses"},{"key":"B75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"334","DOI":"10.1007\/s00134-010-2067-2","article-title":"Long pentraxin PTX3 deficiency worsens LPS-induced acute lung injury.","volume":"37","author":"Han","year":"2011","journal-title":"Intensive Care Med."},{"key":"B76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1285","DOI":"10.1038\/labinvest.2012.92","article-title":"Protective effects of long pentraxin PTX3 on lung injury in a severe acute respiratory syndrome model in mice.","volume":"92","author":"Han","year":"2012","journal-title":"Lab. Invest."},{"key":"B77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e220527","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2022.0527","article-title":"Mortality associated with influenza and respiratory syncytial virus in the US, 1999\u20132018.","volume":"5","author":"Hansen","year":"2022","journal-title":"JAMA Network Open"},{"key":"B78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"449","DOI":"10.1042\/bj3510449","article-title":"Mechanism of binding of surfactant protein D to influenza A viruses: Importance of binding to haemagglutinin to antiviral activity.","volume":"351","author":"Hartshorn","year":"2000","journal-title":"Biochem. J."},{"key":"B79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2020.05.008","article-title":"Elevated levels of IL-6 and CRP predict the need for mechanical ventilation in COVID-19.","volume":"146","author":"Herold","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"B80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"R127","DOI":"10.1186\/cc13934","article-title":"Surfactant protein A genetic variants associate with severe respiratory insufficiency in pandemic influenza A virus infection.","volume":"18","author":"Herrera-Ramos","year":"2014","journal-title":"Crit. Care"},{"key":"B81","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1016\/0166-3542(90)90061-b","article-title":"The efficacy of intranasal interferon alpha-2a in respiratory syncytial virus infection in volunteers.","volume":"14","author":"Higgins","year":"1990","journal-title":"Antiviral Res."},{"key":"B82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"11034","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-29456-w","article-title":"Type I interferon potentiates IgA immunity to respiratory syncytial virus infection during infancy.","volume":"8","author":"Hijano","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"B83","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"566","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2019.00566","article-title":"Role of type I interferon (IFN) in the respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) immune response and disease severity.","volume":"10","author":"Hijano","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"B84","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"S262","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiaf328","article-title":"Host immunomodulatory interventions in severe influenza.","volume":"232","author":"Hui","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"B85","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1065","DOI":"10.3390\/v16071065","article-title":"Serum levels of arachidonic acid, interleukin-6, and C-reactive protein as potential indicators of pulmonary viral infections: Comparative analysis of influenza A, respiratory syncytial virus infection, and COVID-19.","volume":"16","author":"Iftimie","year":"2024","journal-title":"Viruses"},{"key":"B86","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1885","DOI":"10.1038\/s12276-023-01024-x","article-title":"Invariant natural killer T cells in lung diseases.","volume":"55","author":"Jeong","year":"2023","journal-title":"Exp. Mol. Med."},{"key":"B87","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"815","DOI":"10.1038\/s41385-021-00397-4","article-title":"Neutrophils in respiratory viral infections.","volume":"14","author":"Johansson","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mucosal Immunol."},{"key":"B88","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1916","DOI":"10.3390\/v15091916","article-title":"Protective versus pathogenic type I interferon responses during virus infections.","volume":"15","author":"Jung","year":"2023","journal-title":"Viruses"},{"key":"B89","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1365","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-2600(21)00384-2","article-title":"Efficacy of interferon beta-1a plus remdesivir compared with remdesivir alone in hospitalised adults with COVID-19: A double-blind, randomised, placebo-controlled, phase 3 trial.","volume":"9","author":"Kalil","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lancet Respir. Med."},{"key":"B90","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1116","DOI":"10.1038\/s12276-021-00649-0","article-title":"Interplay between interleukin-6 signaling and the vascular endothelium in cytokine storms.","volume":"53","author":"Kang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Exp. Mol. Med."},{"key":"B91","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/s41572-025-00677-4","article-title":"Cytokine storm.","volume":"12","author":"Karki","year":"2026","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Dis. Primers"},{"key":"B92","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"401","DOI":"10.1093\/intimm\/dxx031","article-title":"Hyperferritinemia and inflammation.","volume":"29","author":"Kernan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. Immunol."},{"key":"B93","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1435","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2025.02.011","article-title":"From rare to more common: The emerging role of omics in improving understanding and treatment of severe inflammatory and hyperinflammatory conditions.","volume":"155","author":"Keskitalo","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"B94","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1159\/000503030","article-title":"Innate immune evasion by human respiratory RNA Viruses.","volume":"12","author":"Kikkert","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Innate Immunity"},{"key":"B95","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.immunol.23.021704.115806","article-title":"INTERLEUKIN-6: From basic science to medicine-40 years in immunology.","volume":"23","author":"Kishimoto","year":"2005","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"B96","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e3493","DOI":"10.4212\/cjhp.3493","article-title":"Effect of JAK inhibitors on the risk of death in patients with moderate to severe COVID-19: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.","volume":"77","author":"Kow","year":"2024","journal-title":"Can. J. Hosp. Pharm."},{"key":"B97","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"CD015209","DOI":"10.1002\/14651858.CD015209","article-title":"Janus kinase inhibitors for the treatment of COVID-19.","volume":"6","author":"Kramer","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cochrane Database Syst. Rev."},{"key":"B98","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e266","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00266-21","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 nonstructural protein 1 inhibits the interferon response by causing depletion of key host signaling factors.","volume":"95","author":"Kumar","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"B99","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"696","DOI":"10.1203\/00006450-200206000-00006","article-title":"Surfactant protein D gene polymorphism associated with severe respiratory syncytial virus infection.","volume":"51","author":"Lahti","year":"2002","journal-title":"Pediatr. Res."},{"key":"B100","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1557.e9","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmi.2020.02.018","article-title":"Elevation of serum ferritin levels for predicting a poor outcome in hospitalized patients with influenza infection.","volume":"26","author":"Lalueza","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Infect."},{"key":"B101","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"270","DOI":"10.1038\/s41579-022-00713-0","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 pathogenesis.","volume":"20","author":"Lamers","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"B102","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e98","DOI":"10.1097\/CCM.0000000000004093","article-title":"Corticosteroids as adjunctive therapy in the treatment of influenza: An updated cochrane systematic review and meta-analysis.","volume":"48","author":"Lansbury","year":"2020","journal-title":"Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"B103","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1155","DOI":"10.1378\/chest.11-0047","article-title":"The effect of steroid use in hospitalized adults with respiratory syncytial virus-related illness.","volume":"140","author":"Lee","year":"2011","journal-title":"Chest"},{"key":"B104","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1069","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/cit471","article-title":"High morbidity and mortality in adults hospitalized for respiratory syncytial virus infections.","volume":"57","author":"Lee","year":"2013","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"B105","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"490","DOI":"10.1016\/S0264-410X(98)00223-0","article-title":"IL-6 induces long-term protective immunity against a lethal challenge of influenza virus.","volume":"17","author":"Lee","year":"1999","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"B106","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3810","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-020-17665-9","article-title":"Activation and evasion of type I interferon responses by SARS-CoV-2.","volume":"11","author":"Lei","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"B107","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"522","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-2600(21)00099-0","article-title":"Sarilumab in patients admitted to hospital with severe or critical COVID-19: A randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 3 trial.","volume":"9","author":"Lescure","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lancet Respir. Med."},{"key":"B108","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1165\/rcmb.2003-0107OC","article-title":"Surfactant protein-D enhances phagocytosis and pulmonary clearance of respiratory syncytial virus.","volume":"31","author":"LeVine","year":"2004","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol."},{"key":"B109","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5868","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.167.10.5868","article-title":"Surfactant protein D enhances clearance of influenza A virus from the lung in vivo.","volume":"167","author":"LeVine","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"B110","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.1097\/ID9.0000000000000031","article-title":"Innate immune response in respiratory system: A double-edged sword against virus infection.","volume":"2","author":"Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"Infect. Dis. Immunity"},{"key":"B111","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.1038\/s41392-021-00687-0","article-title":"Pattern recognition receptors in health and diseases.","volume":"6","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"Signal Transduction Targeted Therapy"},{"key":"B112","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"45599","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-025-29616-9","article-title":"Changes in spectrum of respiratory pathogens infections among hospitalized patients post COVID-19 pandemic in Jinan.","volume":"15","author":"Li","year":"2025","journal-title":"Shandong Province. Sci. Rep."},{"key":"B113","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1605446","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2025.1605446","article-title":"Innate immune role of IL-6 in influenza a virus pathogenesis.","volume":"15","author":"Li","year":"2025","journal-title":"Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol."},{"key":"B114","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"369","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cytogfr.2014.07.015","article-title":"Interferons: Success in anti-viral immunotherapy.","volume":"25","author":"Lin","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cytokine Growth Factor Rev."},{"key":"B115","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2147","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2018.02147","article-title":"Epidemiology and immune pathogenesis of viral sepsis.","volume":"9","author":"Lin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"B116","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101569","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bjid.2021.101569","article-title":"Serum ferritin at admission in hospitalized COVID-19 patients as a predictor of mortality.","volume":"25","author":"Lino","year":"2021","journal-title":"Braz. J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"B117","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1038\/cmi.2015.74","article-title":"The cytokine storm of severe influenza and development of immunomodulatory therapy.","volume":"13","author":"Liu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cell. Mol. Immunol."},{"key":"B118","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"871","DOI":"10.1136\/postgradmedj-2021-139939","article-title":"Association between IL-6 and severe disease and mortality in COVID-19 disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis.","volume":"98","author":"Liu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Postgrad Med. J."},{"key":"B119","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1338096","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2024.1338096","article-title":"Interferon lambda in respiratory viral infection: Immunomodulatory functions and antiviral effects in epithelium.","volume":"15","author":"Liu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"B120","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1086\/338473","article-title":"Association between surfactant protein A gene locus and severe respiratory syncytial virus infection in infants.","volume":"185","author":"L\u00f6fgren","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"B121","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"989","DOI":"10.1038\/nature07468","article-title":"Structural recognition and functional activation of Fc\u03b3R by innate pentraxins.","volume":"456","author":"Lu","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"B122","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"686","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jinf.2021.09.024","article-title":"Host inflammatory response is the major marker of severe respiratory syncytial virus infection in older adults.","volume":"83","author":"Lui","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Infect."},{"key":"B123","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1165\/rcmb.2021-0005OC","article-title":"A recombinant fragment of human surfactant protein D binds spike protein and inhibits infectivity and replication of SARS-CoV-2 in clinical samples.","volume":"65","author":"Madan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol."},{"key":"B124","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"439","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMra2206346","article-title":"Humoral innate immunity and acute-phase proteins.","volume":"388","author":"Mantovani","year":"2023","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"B125","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"593","DOI":"10.2217\/fvl.12.44","article-title":"Regulatory T cells and Th17 cells in viral infections: Implications for multiple sclerosis and myocarditis.","volume":"7","author":"Martinez","year":"2012","journal-title":"Future Virol."},{"key":"B126","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"200346","DOI":"10.1183\/16000617.0346-2020","article-title":"Corticosteroids for CAP, influenza and COVID-19: When, how and benefits or harm?","volume":"30","author":"Martin-Loeches","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur. Respir. Rev."},{"key":"B127","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100610","DOI":"10.1016\/j.blre.2019.100610","article-title":"The role of beta-2-glycoprotein I in health and disease associating structure with function: More than just APS.","volume":"39","author":"McDonnell","year":"2020","journal-title":"Blood Rev."},{"key":"B128","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"643","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-2600(21)00103-X","article-title":"Interleukin-6: Obstacles to targeting a complex cytokine in critical illness.","volume":"9","author":"McElvaney","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lancet Respir. Med."},{"key":"B129","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1038\/nri3787","article-title":"Type I interferons in infectious disease.","volume":"15","author":"McNab","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"B130","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2058","DOI":"10.3390\/v14092058","article-title":"FDA-approved inhibitors of RTK\/Raf signaling potently impair multiple steps of in vitro and ex vivo influenza A virus infections.","volume":"14","author":"Meineke","year":"2022","journal-title":"Viruses"},{"key":"B131","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"749","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2022.04.013","article-title":"Mucosal immune responses to infection and vaccination in the respiratory tract.","volume":"55","author":"Mettelman","year":"2022","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"B132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"240","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.00046-08","article-title":"Pathogen recognition and inflammatory signaling in innate immune defenses.","volume":"22","author":"Mogensen","year":"2009","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"B133","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"421","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-323-04404-2.10027-2","article-title":"Immune responses to viruses.","volume":"27","author":"Mueller","year":"2008","journal-title":"Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"B134","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1257192","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2023.1257192","article-title":"Controlling viral inflammatory lesions by rebalancing immune response patterns.","volume":"14","author":"Mulik","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"B135","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"14166","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-32576-y","article-title":"Respiratory syncytial virus induces the classical ROS-dependent NETosis through PAD-4 and necroptosis pathways activation.","volume":"8","author":"Muraro","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"B136","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2012.00131","article-title":"An insight into the diverse roles of surfactant proteins, SP-A and SP-D in innate and adaptive immunity.","volume":"3","author":"Nayak","year":"2012","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"B137","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"471","DOI":"10.1007\/s00281-016-0558-0","article-title":"The host immune response in respiratory virus infection: Balancing virus clearance and immunopathology.","volume":"38","author":"Newton","year":"2016","journal-title":"Semin. Immunopathol."},{"key":"B138","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1186\/s13054-019-2395-8","article-title":"The effect of corticosteroids on mortality of patients with influenza pneumonia: A systematic review and meta-analysis.","volume":"23","author":"Ni","year":"2019","journal-title":"Crit. Care"},{"key":"B139","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1845","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(00)02288-1","article-title":"Efficacy and safety of oseltamivir in treatment of acute influenza: A randomised controlled trial.","volume":"355","author":"Nicholson","year":"2000","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"B140","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"112","DOI":"10.1038\/s41392-025-02178-y","article-title":"Deep insight into cytokine storm: From pathogenesis to treatment.","volume":"10","author":"Nie","year":"2025","journal-title":"Signal Transduction Targeted Therapy"},{"key":"B141","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"L472","DOI":"10.1152\/ajplung.1993.265.5.L472","article-title":"Respiratory syncytial virus-induced cytokine production by a human bronchial epithelial cell line.","volume":"265","author":"Noah","year":"1993","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Lung Cell. Mol. Physiol."},{"key":"B142","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"863","DOI":"10.1189\/jlb.4MR0616-288R","article-title":"Hero turned villain: NLRP3 inflammasome-induced inflammation during influenza A virus infection.","volume":"101","author":"Ong","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Leukocyte Biol."},{"key":"B143","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2729","DOI":"10.3390\/v14122729","article-title":"Influenza virus infection during pregnancy as a trigger of acute and chronic complications.","volume":"14","author":"Oseghale","year":"2022","journal-title":"Viruses"},{"key":"B144","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1539","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiad189","article-title":"Estimation of the number of respiratory syncytial virus-associated hospitalizations in adults in the European union.","volume":"228","author":"Osei-Yeboah","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"B145","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"318","DOI":"10.3390\/v15020318","article-title":"Therapeutic targeting of inflammation and virus simultaneously ameliorates influenza pneumonia and protects from morbidity and mortality.","volume":"15","author":"Pandey","year":"2023","journal-title":"Viruses"},{"key":"B146","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"883","DOI":"10.1111\/febs.15782","article-title":"Targeting tumour necrosis factor to ameliorate viral pneumonia.","volume":"289","author":"Pandey","year":"2022","journal-title":"FEBS J."},{"key":"B147","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e38214","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0038214","article-title":"Interleukin-6 is a potential biomarker for severe pandemic H1N1 influenza A infection.","volume":"7","author":"Paquette","year":"2012","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"B148","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3844","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.173.6.3844","article-title":"IL-6 regulates in vivo dendritic cell differentiation through STAT3 activation.","volume":"173","author":"Park","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"B149","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1767","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(03)13412-5","article-title":"Clinical progression and viral load in a community outbreak of coronavirus-associated SARS pneumonia: A prospective study.","volume":"361","author":"Peiris","year":"2003","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"B150","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"874","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1348-0421.2011.00396.x","article-title":"Key role of regulated upon activation normal T-cell expressed and secreted, nonstructural protein1 and myeloperoxidase in cytokine storm induced by influenza virus PR-8 (A\/H1N1) infection in A549 bronchial epithelial cells: RANTES and NS1 in influenza-cytokine storm.","volume":"55","author":"Phung","year":"2011","journal-title":"Microbiol. Immunol."},{"key":"B151","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"596","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mucimm.2025.02.001","article-title":"IL-6 mediates defense against influenza virus by promoting protective antibody responses but not innate inflammation.","volume":"18","author":"Piattini","year":"2025","journal-title":"Mucosal Immunol."},{"key":"B152","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3982","DOI":"10.1111\/febs.16073","article-title":"Natural killer cell effector functions in antiviral defense.","volume":"289","author":"Piersma","year":"2022","journal-title":"FEBS J."},{"key":"B153","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e63365","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0063365","article-title":"The role of interleukin-1 and interleukin-18 in pro-inflammatory and anti-viral responses to rhinovirus in primary bronchial epithelial cells.","volume":"8","author":"Piper","year":"2013","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"B154","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"102430","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coi.2024.102430","article-title":"Type III interferons in innate and adaptive immunity in the respiratory tract.","volume":"87","author":"Piperakis","year":"2024","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Immunol."},{"key":"B155","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"318","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2024.6096","article-title":"Low-dose corticosteroids for critically Ill adults with severe pulmonary infections: A review.","volume":"332","author":"Pirracchio","year":"2024","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"B156","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2079","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa0900544","article-title":"Epinephrine and dexamethasone in children with bronchiolitis.","volume":"360","author":"Plint","year":"2009","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"B157","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"601","DOI":"10.1080\/1744666X.2021.1919086","article-title":"The role of IL-6 and IL-6 blockade in COVID-19.","volume":"17","author":"Potere","year":"2021","journal-title":"Exp. Rev. Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"B158","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e158","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciaa730","article-title":"Respiratory syncytial virus-associated hospitalizations among adults with chronic medical conditions.","volume":"73","author":"Prasad","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"B159","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e103119","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2025-103119","article-title":"Efficacy and safety of dexamethasone compared to placebo in patients with severe influenza infection. (FLUDEX study): A study protocol for a randomised controlled trial in Spain.","volume":"15","author":"Ramos-Rinc\u00f3n","year":"2025","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"B160","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e20201631","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.20201631","article-title":"A TLR7 antagonist restricts interferon-dependent and -independent immunopathology in a mouse model of severe influenza.","volume":"218","author":"Rappe","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"B161","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3391","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.180.5.3391","article-title":"Antiviral activity of the long chain pentraxin PTX3 against Influenza Viruses.","volume":"180","author":"Reading","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"B162","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"359","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(22)01109-6","article-title":"Baricitinib in patients admitted to hospital with COVID-19 (RECOVERY): A randomised, controlled, open-label, platform trial and updated meta-analysis.","volume":"400","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"B163","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"518","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2209760","article-title":"Early treatment with pegylated interferon lambda for Covid-19.","volume":"388","author":"Reis","year":"2023","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"B165","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1491","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2100433","article-title":"Interleukin-6 receptor antagonists in critically ill patients with Covid-19.","volume":"384","year":"2021","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"B164","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"511","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.163.3.511","article-title":"Interleukin 1 and interleukin 1 inhibitor production by human macrophages exposed to influenza virus or respiratory syncytial virus. Respiratory syncytial virus is a potent inducer of inhibitor activity.","volume":"163","author":"Roberts","year":"1986","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"B166","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"887","DOI":"10.1002\/hep.22716","article-title":"Ferritin functions as a proinflammatory cytokine via iron-independent protein kinase C zeta\/nuclear factor kappaB-regulated signaling in rat hepatic stellate cells\u2020.","volume":"49","author":"Ruddell","year":"2009","journal-title":"Hepatology"},{"key":"B167","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"103114","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2022.103114","article-title":"Expanding the spectrum of the hyperferritinemic syndrome, from pathogenic mechanisms to clinical observations, and therapeutic implications.","volume":"21","author":"Ruscitti","year":"2022","journal-title":"Autoimmunity Rev."},{"key":"B168","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0272826","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0272826","article-title":"Clinical efficacy and safety of interferon (Type I and Type III) therapy in patients with COVID-19: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.","volume":"18","author":"Ryoo","year":"2023","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"B169","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2030340","article-title":"Tocilizumab in patients hospitalized with Covid-19 pneumonia.","volume":"384","author":"Salama","year":"2021","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"B170","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"613422","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2021.613422","article-title":"Interleukin-6 Is a biomarker for the development of fatal severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 pneumonia.","volume":"12","author":"Santa Cruz","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"B171","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"878","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbamcr.2011.01.034","article-title":"The pro- and anti-inflammatory properties of the cytokine interleukin-6.","volume":"1813","author":"Scheller","year":"2011","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta (BBA) Mol. Cell Res."},{"key":"B172","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"893","DOI":"10.2741\/4839","article-title":"The role of iron in viral infections.","volume":"25","author":"Schmidt","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Biosci."},{"key":"B173","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6441","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.79.10.6441-6448.2005","article-title":"Interleukin-1 is responsible for acute lung immunopathology but increases survival of respiratory influenza virus infection.","volume":"79","author":"Schmitz","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"B174","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2279","DOI":"10.1111\/all.14310","article-title":"Inhibition of uric acid or IL-1\u03b2 ameliorates respiratory syncytial virus immunopathology and development of asthma.","volume":"75","author":"Schuler","year":"2020","journal-title":"Allergy"},{"key":"B175","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2221","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMsa2514268","article-title":"Updated evidence for Covid-19, RSV, and influenza vaccines for 2025-2026.","volume":"393","author":"Scott","year":"2025","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"B176","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"808","DOI":"10.3390\/v12080808","article-title":"The contribution of neutrophils to the pathogenesis of RSV bronchiolitis.","volume":"12","author":"Sebina","year":"2020","journal-title":"Viruses"},{"key":"B177","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"875","DOI":"10.1038\/nri3547","article-title":"Age-dependent dysregulation of innate immunity.","volume":"13","author":"Shaw","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"B178","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1849","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2018.01849","article-title":"Tumor necrosis factor receptor-associated factor regulation of nuclear factor \u03baB and mitogen-activated protein kinase pathways.","volume":"9","author":"Shi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"B179","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1187065","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2023.1187065","article-title":"Immunoglobulin E-virus phenotypes of infant bronchiolitis and risk of childhood asthma.","volume":"14","author":"Shibata","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"B180","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(13)70286-X","article-title":"Pathogenesis of influenza-induced acute respiratory distress syndrome.","volume":"14","author":"Short","year":"2014","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"B181","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"405","DOI":"10.1016\/j.healun.2020.03.012","article-title":"COVID-19 illness in native and immunosuppressed states: A clinical-therapeutic staging proposal.","volume":"39","author":"Siddiqi","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Heart Lung Transplantation"},{"key":"B182","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.mm7506a2","article-title":"Respiratory virus activity-United States, July 1, 2024-June 30, 2025.","volume":"75","author":"Silk","year":"2026","journal-title":"MMWR. Morbidity Mortality Weekly Rep."},{"key":"B183","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1111\/imr.13171","article-title":"Neutrophils are gatekeepers of mucosal immunity.","volume":"314","author":"Silva","year":"2023","journal-title":"Immunol. Rev."},{"key":"B184","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e1010219","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1010219","article-title":"Itaconate and derivatives reduce interferon responses and inflammation in influenza A virus infection.","volume":"18","author":"Sohail","year":"2022","journal-title":"PLoS Pathog."},{"key":"B185","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"542","DOI":"10.1016\/j.devcel.2018.01.019","article-title":"Neutrophil extracellular traps: The biology of chromatin externalization.","volume":"44","author":"Sollberger","year":"2018","journal-title":"Dev. Cell"},{"key":"B186","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1513","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.01513","article-title":"The role of dendritic cells during infections caused by highly prevalent viruses.","volume":"11","author":"Soto","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"B187","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5353","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.79.9.5353-5362.2005","article-title":"Effects of nonstructural proteins NS1 and NS2 of human respiratory syncytial virus on interferon regulatory factor 3, NF-\u03baB, and proinflammatory cytokines.","volume":"79","author":"Spann","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"B188","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa071366","article-title":"Hydrocortisone therapy for patients with septic shock.","volume":"358","author":"Sprung","year":"2008","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"B189","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"186","DOI":"10.1055\/a-1956-9641","article-title":"Knowledge gaps for prophylactic antithrombotic agents use in patients with COVID-19: Insights on new variants, vaccination and emerging antivirals.","volume":"123","author":"Talasaz","year":"2022","journal-title":"Thrombosis Haemostasis."},{"key":"B190","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"a016295","DOI":"10.1101\/cshperspect.a016295","article-title":"IL-6 in inflammation, immunity, and disease.","volume":"6","author":"Tanaka","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cold Spring Harbor Perspect. Biol."},{"key":"B191","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2018.3795","article-title":"Chronic hepatitis B infection: A review.","volume":"319","author":"Tang","year":"2018","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"B192","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1209.05-0979","article-title":"1918 Influenza: The mother of all pandemics.","volume":"12","author":"Taubenberger","year":"2006","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"B193","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"499","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.pathmechdis.3.121806.154316","article-title":"The pathology of influenza virus infections.","volume":"3","author":"Taubenberger","year":"2008","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Pathol. Mech. Dis."},{"key":"B194","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1006\/viro.2001.1138","article-title":"Contribution of the respiratory syncytial virus G glycoprotein and its secreted and membrane-bound forms to virus replication in vitro and in vivo.","volume":"289","author":"Teng","year":"2001","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"B195","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"693","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2021436","article-title":"Dexamethasone in hospitalized patients with Covid-19.","volume":"384","year":"2021","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"B197","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"681","DOI":"10.1038\/nm.4332","article-title":"Host DNA released by NETosis promotes rhinovirus-induced type-2 allergic asthma exacerbation.","volume":"23","author":"Toussaint","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"B198","unstructured":"Emergency Use Authorizations for Drugs and Non-Vaccine Biological Products: Kineret."},{"key":"B199","unstructured":"Orange Book: Approved Drug Products with Therapeutic Equivalence Evaluations."},{"key":"B200","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1154","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2019.01154","article-title":"Cytokines in the respiratory airway as biomarkers of severity and prognosis for respiratory syncytial virus infection: An update.","volume":"10","author":"V\u00e1zquez","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"B201","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1057","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2019.01057","article-title":"The role of interleukin 6 during viral infections.","volume":"10","author":"Velazquez-Salinas","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"B202","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"797","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1705835","article-title":"Adjunctive glucocorticoid therapy in patients with septic shock.","volume":"378","author":"Venkatesh","year":"2018","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"B203","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e193","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(25)00365-2","article-title":"Community-acquired respiratory virus infections in patients with haematological malignancies or undergoing haematopoietic cell transplantation: Updated recommendations from the 10th European conference on infections in Leukaemia.","volume":"26","author":"Von Lilienfeld-Toal","year":"2026","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"B204","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/14651858.CD014963.pub2","article-title":"Systemic corticosteroids for the treatment of COVID-19: Equity-related analyses and update on evidence.","volume":"11","author":"Wagner","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cochrane Database Syst. Rev."},{"key":"B205","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1465","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2213836","article-title":"Efficacy and safety of a bivalent RSV prefusion F vaccine in older adults.","volume":"388","author":"Walsh","year":"2023","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"B206","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1141","DOI":"10.3390\/v12101141","article-title":"In vitro and in vivo antiviral activity of gingerenone A on influenza A virus is mediated by targeting Janus kinase 2.","volume":"12","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Viruses"},{"key":"B207","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virol.2022.07.002","article-title":"Influenza virus NS1 interacts with 14-3-3\u03b5 to antagonize the production of RIG-I-mediated type I interferons.","volume":"574","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"B208","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"16975","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1315862110","article-title":"STAT3 activation in response to IL-6 is prolonged by the binding of IL-6 receptor to EGF receptor.","volume":"110","author":"Wang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"B209","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2023184","article-title":"Repurposed antiviral drugs for Covid-19-interim WHO solidarity trial results.","volume":"384","year":"2021","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"B210","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"822","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-2600(24)00255-8","article-title":"Respiratory syncytial virus infections in adults: A narrative review.","volume":"12","author":"Wildenbeest","year":"2024","journal-title":"Lancet Respir. Med."},{"key":"B211","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"331","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tibs.2022.10.002","article-title":"The NLRP3 inflammasome: Activation and regulation.","volume":"48","author":"Xu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Trends Biochem. Sci."},{"key":"B212","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2281","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.20160417","article-title":"IL-6 promotes the differentiation of a subset of naive CD8+ T cells into IL-21-producing B helper CD8+ T cells.","volume":"213","author":"Yang","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"B213","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0135023","DOI":"10.1128\/aac.01350-23","article-title":"A panel of janus kinase inhibitors identified with anti-inflammatory effects protect mice from lethal influenza virus infection.","volume":"68","author":"Yu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemotherapy"},{"key":"B214","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1186\/s13054-024-04809-2","article-title":"The protective effect of apolipoprotein H in paediatric sepsis.","volume":"28","author":"Yu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Crit. Care"},{"key":"B215","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"644","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tim.2022.12.008","article-title":"Severe respiratory viral infections: T-cell functions diverging from immunity to inflammation.","volume":"31","author":"Yunis","year":"2023","journal-title":"Trends Microbiol."},{"key":"B216","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"817113","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.817113","article-title":"RSV infection in neonatal mice induces pulmonary eosinophilia responsible for asthmatic reaction.","volume":"13","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"B217","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"324","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virol.2007.04.009","article-title":"Nucleocapsid protein of SARS-CoV activates interleukin-6 expression through cellular transcription factor NF-\u03baB.","volume":"365","author":"Zhang","year":"2007","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"B218","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e1161","DOI":"10.1128\/spectrum.01161-24","article-title":"Epidemiology of respiratory pathogens in patients with acute respiratory infections during the COVID-19 pandemic and after easing of COVID-19 restrictions.","volume":"12","author":"Zhao","year":"2024","journal-title":"Microbiol. Spectrum"},{"key":"B219","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e2531","DOI":"10.1002\/rmv.2531","article-title":"Ferritin: Significance in viral infections.","volume":"34","author":"Zhao","year":"2024","journal-title":"Rev. Med. Virol."},{"key":"B220","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1054","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(20)30566-3","article-title":"Clinical course and risk factors for mortality of adult inpatients with COVID-19 in Wuhan, China: A retrospective cohort study.","volume":"395","author":"Zhou","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"B221","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1425168","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2024.1425168","article-title":"C-reactive protein: Structure, function, regulation, and role in clinical diseases.","volume":"15","author":"Zhou","year":"2024","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"B222","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3044","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-59732-7","article-title":"Use of corticosteroids in influenza-associated acute respiratory distress syndrome and severe pneumonia: A systemic review and meta-analysis.","volume":"10","author":"Zhou","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"B223","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"288","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2334-10-288","article-title":"C-reactive protein serum levels as an early predictor of outcome in patients with pandemic H1N1 influenza A virus infection.","volume":"10","author":"Zimmerman","year":"2010","journal-title":"BMC Infect. Dis."},{"key":"B224","first-page":"443","article-title":"A different look at corticosteroids.","volume":"58","author":"Zoorob","year":"1998","journal-title":"Am. Fam. Phys."}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Microbiology"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fmicb.2026.1916526\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,29]],"date-time":"2026-09-29T14:29:51Z","timestamp":1790692191000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fmicb.2026.1916526\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,29]]},"references-count":223,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fmicb.2026.1916526"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fmicb.2026.1916526","relation":{},"ISSN":["1664-302X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1664-302X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,29]]},"article-number":"1916526"}}