{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,25]],"date-time":"2026-09-25T05:59:59Z","timestamp":1790315999916,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":67,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,25]],"date-time":"2026-09-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790294400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Microbiol."],"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Introduction<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      <jats:italic>Clostridium perfringens<\/jats:italic>\n                      (\n                      <jats:italic>C. perfringens<\/jats:italic>\n                      ) is a pathobiont of the intestinal microbiota that can cause severe systemic and enteric diseases.\n                      <jats:italic>C. perfringens<\/jats:italic>\n                      colonizes a variety of hosts and environmental niches, which is the theorized reason for its large genome, low guanine-cytosine content, and small stable core genome. Over 20 putative virulence factors have been described, but only six are included in the used typing scheme. Epidemiological analysis is limited, and to the authors\u2019 knowledge, this is the first study for Austria. Furthermore,\n                      <jats:italic>C. perfringens<\/jats:italic>\n                      frequently harbors different and\/or multiple genes associated with antibiotic resistance (AMR genes) targeting various antibiotic classes.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      A novel DNA microarray \u2013 targeting 15\n                      <jats:italic>C. perfringens<\/jats:italic>\n                      -associated genes \u2013 was evaluated against a published multiplex PCR (\n                      <jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u202f=\u202f143) and\n                      <jats:italic>in silico<\/jats:italic>\n                      analysis of Whole Genome Sequences (WGS) (\n                      <jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u202f=\u202f20). Multi Locus Sequence Typing (MLST) was performed (\n                      <jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u202f=\u202f124), the results were analyzed using the goeBURST algorithm, and a maximum likelihood tree was constructed. Genomes of this study and publicly available (\n                      <jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u202f=\u202f44) were analyzed\n                      <jats:italic>in silico<\/jats:italic>\n                      for AMR genes.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      The DNA microarray detected all target genes except\n                      <jats:italic>becA<\/jats:italic>\n                      and\n                      <jats:italic>becB<\/jats:italic>\n                      , which were absent across all tested strains and methods. The most frequent virulence factors were\n                      <jats:italic>cpa<\/jats:italic>\n                      (\n                      <jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u202f=\u202f143),\n                      <jats:italic>tpi<\/jats:italic>\n                      (\n                      <jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u202f=\u202f132), and\n                      <jats:italic>cpb2<\/jats:italic>\n                      (\n                      <jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u202f=\u202f104). MLST revealed 77 Sequence Types (STs) \u2013 including 42 novel STs \u2013 clustered into six Clonal Complexes (CCs). CC39 was the most abundant and exclusively associated with pork\/swine. At least one AMR gene was present in 58.7% of genomes and multiple AMR genes in 34.8%. AMR genes associated with resistance to tetracycline, aminoglycosides, pleuromutilin, lincosamides, macrolides, and streptogramins but non to beta-lactams were detected. Notably, one isolate carried\n                      <jats:italic>lsa<\/jats:italic>\n                      (E), which was not previously described for\n                      <jats:italic>C. perfringens<\/jats:italic>\n                      .\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      The DNA microarray showed detection rates comparable to those of multiplex PCR and WGS analysis while being less labor-intensive and more cost-effective. This is the first epidemiological study on\n                      <jats:italic>C. perfringens<\/jats:italic>\n                      for Austria. We described 42 novel STs and six CCs of which CC39 appears to be porcine-associated. The\n                      <jats:italic>lsa<\/jats:italic>\n                      (E) gene was detected in a\n                      <jats:italic>C. perfringens<\/jats:italic>\n                      isolate.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2026.1944327","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,25]],"date-time":"2026-09-25T05:32:30Z","timestamp":1790314350000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Genetic characterization of gut-associated Clostridium perfringens isolates from Austrian animals using a combination of established and novel methods"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Michael","family":"Bl\u00fcmlinger","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Unit Swine Medicine, Clinical Centre for Population Medicine in Fish, Pig and Poultry, Clinical Department for Farm Animals and Food System Science, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna","place":["Vienna, Austria"]},{"name":"Unit Microbiology, Centre of Pathobiology, Department of Biological Sciences and Pathobiology, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna","place":["Vienna, Austria"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lukas","family":"Schwarz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unit Swine Medicine, Clinical Centre for Population Medicine in Fish, Pig and Poultry, Clinical Department for Farm Animals and Food System Science, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna","place":["Vienna, Austria"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Joachim","family":"Spergser","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unit Microbiology, Centre of Pathobiology, Department of Biological Sciences and Pathobiology, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna","place":["Vienna, Austria"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Adriana","family":"Cabal-Rosel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division Public Health, Austrian Agency for Health and Food Safety, Institute for Surveillance and Infectious Disease Epidemiology","place":["Vienna, Austria"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Werner","family":"Ruppitsch","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Hygiene and Medical Microbiology, Medical University Innsbruck","place":["Innsbruck, Austria"]},{"name":"Faculty of Food Technology, Food Safety and Ecology, University of Donja Gorica","place":["Podgorica, Montenegro"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Maximilian","family":"Collatz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"RNA Bioinformatics and High-Throughput Analysis, Friedrich Schiller University Jena","place":["Jena, Germany"]},{"name":"Bioinformatics Core Facility Jena, Friedrich Schiller University Jena","place":["Jena, Germany"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sascha D.","family":"Braun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Leibniz-Institute of Photonic Technology (Leibniz-IPHT), Member of the Leibniz Center for Photonics in Infection Research (LPI)","place":["Jena, Germany"]},{"name":"InfectoGnostics Research Campus","place":["Jena, Germany"]},{"name":"Center for Translational Medicine (CETRAMED), Jena University Hospital, Friedrich Schiller University Jena","place":["Jena, Germany"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Stefan","family":"Monecke","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Leibniz-Institute of Photonic Technology (Leibniz-IPHT), Member of the Leibniz Center for Photonics in Infection Research (LPI)","place":["Jena, Germany"]},{"name":"InfectoGnostics Research Campus","place":["Jena, Germany"]},{"name":"Center for Translational Medicine (CETRAMED), Jena University Hospital, Friedrich Schiller University Jena","place":["Jena, Germany"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ralf","family":"Ehricht","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Leibniz-Institute of Photonic Technology (Leibniz-IPHT), Member of the Leibniz Center for Photonics in Infection Research (LPI)","place":["Jena, Germany"]},{"name":"InfectoGnostics Research Campus","place":["Jena, Germany"]},{"name":"Center for Translational Medicine (CETRAMED), Jena University Hospital, Friedrich Schiller University Jena","place":["Jena, Germany"]},{"name":"Institute of Physical Chemistry, Friedrich Schiller University Jena","place":["Jena, Germany"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Andrea","family":"Buzanich-Ladinig","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unit Swine Medicine, Clinical Centre for Population Medicine in Fish, Pig and Poultry, Clinical Department for Farm Animals and Food System Science, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna","place":["Vienna, Austria"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Igor","family":"Loncaric","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unit Microbiology, Centre of Pathobiology, Department of Biological Sciences and Pathobiology, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna","place":["Vienna, Austria"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","volume-title":"In Silico Genome Analysis and Molecular Typing of","author":"Abdel-Glil","year":"2020"},{"key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6756","DOI":"10.1038\/S41598-021-86148-8","article-title":"Comparative in silico genome analysis of Clostridium Perfringens unravels stable Phylogroups with different genome characteristics and pathogenic potential","volume":"11","author":"Abdel-Glil","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3052","DOI":"10.1128\/Aac.00304-10","article-title":"Two novel antibiotic resistance genes, Tet(44) and ant(6)-Ib, are located within a transferable pathogenicity island in Campylobacter fetus subsp. fetus","volume":"54","author":"Abril","year":"2010","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1016\/J.Plasmid.2018.07.002","article-title":"Antibiotic resistance plasmids and mobile genetic elements of Clostridium perfringens","volume":"99","author":"Adams","year":"2018","journal-title":"Plasmid"},{"key":"ref5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"359","DOI":"10.3390\/Toxins15060359","article-title":"Genomic insights into virulence factors and multi-drug resistance in Clostridium Perfringens Irmc2505a","volume":"15","author":"Aljindan","year":"2023","journal-title":"Toxins"},{"key":"ref6","volume-title":"Prudent Use of Antibiotics in Cattle, Pigs, Small Ruminants, and New World Camelids: Therapy Guide for Veterinarians","author":"Andina-Pfister","year":"2022"},{"key":"ref7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"102298","DOI":"10.1016\/J.Anaerobe.2020.102298","article-title":"Toxinotyping and molecular characterization of antimicrobial resistance in Clostridium perfringens isolated from different sources of livestock and poultry","volume":"67","author":"Anju","year":"2021","journal-title":"Anaerobe"},{"key":"ref8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2785","DOI":"10.1128\/Jcm.00165-06","article-title":"Comparative analysis of prevalence, risk factors, and molecular epidemiology of antibiotic-associated diarrhea due to Clostridium Difficile, Clostridium perfringens, and Staphylococcus Aureus","volume":"44","author":"Asha","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1676","DOI":"10.3390\/Microorganisms9081676","article-title":"The Pheno- and genotypic characterization of porcine Escherichia Coli isolates","volume":"9","author":"Bernreiter-Hofer","year":"2021","journal-title":"Microorganisms"},{"key":"ref10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"107478","DOI":"10.1016\/J.Ijantimicag.2025.107478","article-title":"Diagnostic and epidemiological landscape of anaerobic bacteria in Europe, 2020-2023 (Anaeurobe)","volume":"65","author":"Boattini","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents"},{"key":"ref11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"952081","DOI":"10.3389\/Fmicb.2022.952081","article-title":"Intra-species diversity of Clostridium Perfringens: a diverse genetic repertoire reveals its pathogenic potential","volume":"13","author":"Camargo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2341968","DOI":"10.1080\/22221751.2024.2341968","article-title":"Unveiling the pathogenic mechanisms of Clostridium Perfringens toxins and virulence factors","volume":"13","author":"Camargo","year":"2024","journal-title":"Emerg. Microbes Infect."},{"key":"ref13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"232","DOI":"10.1128\/Mmbr.65.2.232-260.2001","article-title":"Tetracycline antibiotics: mode of action, applications, molecular biology, and epidemiology of bacterial resistance","volume":"65","author":"Chopra","year":"2001","journal-title":"Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev."},{"key":"ref14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"639","DOI":"10.1111\/J.1365-2958.1995.Tb02373.X","article-title":"The enterotoxin gene (Cpe) of Clostridium perfringens can be chromosomal or plasmid-borne","volume":"15","author":"Cornillot","year":"1995","journal-title":"Mol. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1111\/avj.12940","volume-title":"Antimicrobial Prescribing Guidelines for Pigs","author":"Cutler","year":"2020"},{"key":"ref16","volume-title":"Guideline for Prescribing Antimicrobial for Pigs","year":"2018"},{"key":"ref17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"559","DOI":"10.1128\/Cmr.13.4.559","article-title":"Multiplex Pcr: optimization and application in diagnostic virology","volume":"13","author":"Elnifro","year":"2000","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"E9759","DOI":"10.2903\/J.Efsa.2025.9759","article-title":"The European Union one health 2024 zoonoses report","volume":"23","year":"2025","journal-title":"EFSA J."},{"key":"ref19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"104640","DOI":"10.1016\/J.Fm.2024.104640","article-title":"Prevalence and genomic characteristics of Becab-carrying Clostridium perfringens strains","volume":"125","author":"Fang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"12728","DOI":"10.1038\/S41598-021-91456-0","article-title":"Amrfinderplus and the reference gene catalog facilitate examination of the genomic links among antimicrobial resistance, stress response, and virulence","volume":"11","author":"Feldgarden","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e00982","DOI":"10.1128\/Aac.00483-19","article-title":"Validating the Amrfinder tool and resistance gene database by using antimicrobial resistance genotype-phenotype correlations in a collection of isolates","volume":"63","author":"Feldgarden","year":"2019","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"152","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2105-10-152","article-title":"Global optimal Eburst analysis of multilocus typing data using a graphic Matroid approach","volume":"10","author":"Francisco","year":"2009","journal-title":"BMC Bioinformatics"},{"key":"ref23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"649953","DOI":"10.3389\/Fmicb.2021.649953","article-title":"Comparative genomics of Clostridium Perfringens reveals patterns of host-associated phylogenetic clades and virulence factors","volume":"12","author":"Geier","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"457","DOI":"10.2478\/Jvetres-2018-0073","article-title":"New insight of apparently healthy animals as a potential reservoir for Clostridium Perfringens: a public health implication","volume":"62","author":"Hamza","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1556","DOI":"10.1128\/Jcm.01884-10","article-title":"Multilocus sequence typing subtypes of poultry Clostridium Perfringens isolates demonstrate disease niche partitioning","volume":"49","author":"Hibberd","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7110","DOI":"10.1128\/Jb.183.24.7110-7119.2001","article-title":"Transcriptional analysis of the Tet(P) operon from Clostridium Perfringens","volume":"183","author":"Johanesen","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Bacteriol."},{"key":"ref27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"124","DOI":"10.12688\/Wellcomeopenres.14826.1","article-title":"Open-access bacterial population genomics: Bigsdb software, the pubmlst.Org website and their applications","volume":"3","author":"Jolley","year":"2018","journal-title":"Wellcome Open Res."},{"key":"ref28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"158","DOI":"10.1016\/J.Vetmic.2006.03.025","article-title":"Clonal relationships among Clostridium Perfringens of porcine origin as determined by multilocus sequence typing","volume":"116","author":"Jost","year":"2006","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"294","DOI":"10.1038\/Nbt.2522","article-title":"Updating benchtop sequencing performance comparison","volume":"31","author":"J\u00fcnemann","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nat. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2485","DOI":"10.3389\/Fmicb.2017.02485","article-title":"Probing genomic aspects of the multi-host pathogen Clostridium Perfringens reveals significant Pangenome diversity, and a diverse Array of virulence factors","volume":"8","author":"Kiu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/S41426-018-0144-8","article-title":"An update on the human and animal enteric pathogen Clostridium Perfringens","volume":"7","author":"Kiu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Emerg. Microbes Infect."},{"key":"ref32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"543","DOI":"10.3390\/Toxins11090543","article-title":"Genomic analysis of Clostridium Perfringens Bec\/Cpile-positive, Toxinotype D and E strains isolated from healthy children","volume":"11","author":"Kiu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Toxins"},{"key":"ref33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"msae263","DOI":"10.1093\/Molbev\/Msae263","article-title":"Mega12: molecular evolutionary genetic analysis version 12 for adaptive and green computing","volume":"41","author":"Kumar","year":"2024","journal-title":"Mol. Biol. Evol."},{"key":"ref34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"208","DOI":"10.1128\/Mmbr.00062-12","article-title":"Toxin plasmids of Clostridium Perfringens","volume":"77","author":"Li","year":"2013","journal-title":"Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev."},{"key":"ref35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1580271","DOI":"10.3389\/Fmicb.2025.1580271","article-title":"First genomic analysis of a Clostridium Perfringens strain carrying both the Cpe and Netb genes and the proposal of an amended toxin-based typing scheme","volume":"16","author":"Mada","year":"2025","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"326","DOI":"10.3390\/Toxins11060326","article-title":"Prevalence and genetic diversity of toxin genes in clinical isolates of Clostridium perfringens: coexistence of alpha-toxin variant and binary enterotoxin genes (Bec\/Cpile)","volume":"11","author":"Matsuda","year":"2019","journal-title":"Toxins"},{"key":"ref37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"103011","DOI":"10.1016\/J.Anaerobe.2025.103011","article-title":"Milestones in Clostridium perfringens research since 1995","volume":"96","author":"Mcclane","year":"2025","journal-title":"Anaerobe"},{"key":"ref38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"723","DOI":"10.1080\/21505594.2021.1886777","article-title":"Pathogenicity and virulence of Clostridium perfringens","volume":"12","author":"Mehdizadeh Gohari","year":"2021","journal-title":"Virulence"},{"key":"ref39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"230","DOI":"10.1177\/1040638720904714","article-title":"Netf-producing Clostridium perfringens and its associated diseases in dogs and foals","volume":"32","author":"Mehdizadeh Gohari","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Vet. Diagn. Invest."},{"key":"ref40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1016\/J.Vetmic.2007.05.016","article-title":"Microarray based study on virulence-associated genes and resistance determinants of Staphylococcus Aureus isolates from cattle","volume":"125","author":"Monecke","year":"2007","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"940","DOI":"10.1128\/9781683670131.ch58","volume-title":"Gram-Positive Pathogens","author":"Moore","year":"2019"},{"key":"ref42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1012","DOI":"10.1128\/9781683670131.ch62","volume-title":"Gram-Positive Pathogens","author":"Nagahama","year":"2019"},{"key":"ref43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1093\/Bioinformatics\/Btw582","article-title":"Phyloviz 2.0: providing scalable data integration and visualization for multiple phylogenetic inference methods","volume":"33","author":"Nascimento","year":"2017","journal-title":"Bioinformatics"},{"key":"ref44","year":"2013"},{"key":"ref45","year":"2016"},{"key":"ref46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1016\/J.Anaerobe.2009.01.005","article-title":"MLST analysis reveals a highly conserved core genome among poultry isolates of Clostridium septicum","volume":"15","author":"Neumann","year":"2009","journal-title":"Anaerobe"},{"key":"ref47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2291","DOI":"10.1128\/Jcm.43.5.2291-2302.2005","article-title":"Microarray-based detection of 90 antibiotic resistance genes of gram-positive Bacteria","volume":"43","author":"Perreten","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"E102","DOI":"10.1002\/Cpbi.102","article-title":"Using Spades De novo assembler","volume":"70","author":"Prjibelski","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr. Protoc. Bioinformatics"},{"key":"ref49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"114","DOI":"10.1071\/Ma15039","article-title":"Clostridium perfringens extracellular toxins and enzymes: 20 and counting","volume":"36","author":"Revitt-Mills","year":"2015","journal-title":"Microbiol. Aust."},{"key":"ref50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/Microbiolspec.Gpp3-0034-2018","article-title":"Virulence plasmids of the pathogenic Clostridia","volume":"7","author":"Revitt-Mills","year":"2019","journal-title":"Microbiol. Spectrum"},{"key":"ref51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1016\/J.Anaerobe.2018.04.011","article-title":"Expansion of the Clostridium perfringens toxin-based typing scheme","volume":"53","author":"Rood","year":"2018","journal-title":"Anaerobe"},{"key":"ref52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"D20","DOI":"10.1093\/Nar\/Gkae979","article-title":"Database resources of the National Center for biotechnology information in 2025","volume":"53","author":"Sayers","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nucleic Acids Res."},{"key":"ref53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1128\/9781555819804","volume-title":"Antimicrobial Resistance in Bacteria from Livestock and Companion Animals","author":"Schwarz","year":"2018"},{"key":"ref54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"E1538","DOI":"10.1002\/Hsr2.1538","article-title":"How to tackle single target gene positive results of Sars-Cov-2 real-time Pcr: a cross-sectional study","volume":"6","author":"Shafiei-Jandaghi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Health Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"977","DOI":"10.1128\/9781683670131.ch60","volume-title":"Gram-Positive Pathogens","author":"Shrestha","year":"2019"},{"key":"ref56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"360","DOI":"10.1046\/J.1439-0450.2003.00690.X","article-title":"Genotyping of Clostridium Perfringens isolated from domestic and exotic ruminants and swine","volume":"50","author":"Sipos","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Vet. Med. B Infect. Dis Vet. Public Health"},{"key":"ref57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"300","DOI":"10.1186\/S12917-024-04168-8","article-title":"Emergence of genetic diversity and multi-drug resistant Clostridium Perfringens from wild birds","volume":"20","author":"Song","year":"2024","journal-title":"BMC Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"399","DOI":"10.1016\/J.Vetmic.2009.07.003","article-title":"Clostridia as agents of zoonotic disease","volume":"140","author":"Songer","year":"2010","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"512","DOI":"10.1093\/Oxfordjournals.Molbev.A040023","article-title":"Estimation of the number of nucleotide substitutions in the control region of mitochondrial Dna in humans and chimpanzees","volume":"10","author":"Tamura","year":"1993","journal-title":"Mol. Biol. Evol."},{"key":"ref60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"104898","DOI":"10.1016\/J.Fm.2025.104898","article-title":"Isolation rate, genetic diversity, and toxinotyping of Clostridium perfringens isolated from French cattle, pig or poultry slaughterhouses","volume":"133","author":"Tran","year":"2026","journal-title":"Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"792","DOI":"10.1002\/9781119350927.ch51","volume-title":"Diseases of Swine","author":"Uzal","year":"2019"},{"key":"ref62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"473","DOI":"10.1093\/Jac\/Dks398","article-title":"The Enterococcal Abc transporter gene Lsa(E) confers combined resistance to Lincosamides, Pleuromutilins and Streptogramin a antibiotics in methicillin-susceptible and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus Aureus","volume":"68","author":"Wendlandt","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7060","DOI":"10.1128\/Aem.01486-12","article-title":"A wide variety of Clostridium Perfringens type a food-borne isolates that carry a chromosomal Cpe gene belong to one multilocus sequence typing cluster","volume":"78","author":"Xiao","year":"2012","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"102639","DOI":"10.1016\/J.Anaerobe.2022.102639","article-title":"Prevalence, molecular characterization, and antimicrobial resistance profile of Clostridium perfringens from India: a scoping review","volume":"77","author":"Yadav","year":"2022","journal-title":"Anaerobe"},{"key":"ref65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"172","DOI":"10.1016\/J.Mimet.2016.06.007","article-title":"Development and application of a multiplex Pcr assay for detection of the Clostridium Perfringens enterotoxin-encoding genes Cpe and Becab","volume":"127","author":"Yonogi","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Microbiol. Methods"},{"key":"ref66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"110785","DOI":"10.1016\/J.Vetmic.2025.110785","article-title":"Antimicrobial resistance profiling and molecular typing of beta-2 toxin-producing Clostridium perfringens from pig-derived isolates in Xinjiang, China","volume":"312","author":"Zekun","year":"2026","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1195083","DOI":"10.3389\/Fmicb.2023.1195083","article-title":"Molecular characteristics and phylogenetic analysis of Clostridium perfringens from different regions in China, from 2013 to 2021","volume":"14","author":"Zhong","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Microbiology"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fmicb.2026.1944327\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,25]],"date-time":"2026-09-25T05:32:33Z","timestamp":1790314353000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fmicb.2026.1944327\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,25]]},"references-count":67,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fmicb.2026.1944327"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fmicb.2026.1944327","relation":{},"ISSN":["1664-302X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1664-302X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,25]]},"article-number":"1944327"}}