{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,15]],"date-time":"2026-10-15T21:38:15Z","timestamp":1792100295759,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":101,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,25]],"date-time":"2022-01-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1643068800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001804","name":"Canada Research Chairs","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001804","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Aging Neurosci."],"abstract":"<jats:p>In this review, we undertake a critical appraisal of eight published studies providing first evidence that a history of attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) may increase risk for the later-life development of a neurodegenerative disease, in particular Lewy body diseases (LBD), by up to five-fold. Most of these studies have used data linked to health records in large population registers and include impressive sample sizes and adequate follow-up periods. We identify a number of methodological limitations as well, including potential diagnostic inaccuracies arising from the use of electronic health records, biases in the measurement of ADHD status and symptoms, and concerns surrounding the representativeness of ADHD and LBD cohorts. Consequently, previously reported risk associations may have been underestimated due to the high likelihood of potentially missed ADHD cases in groups used as \u201ccontrols\u201d, or alternatively previous estimates may be inflated due to the inclusion of confounding comorbidities or non-ADHD cases within \u201cexposed\u201d groups that may have better accounted for dementia risk. Prospective longitudinal studies involving well-characterized cases and controls are recommended to provide some reassurance about the validity of neurodegenerative risk estimates in ADHD.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fnagi.2021.826213","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,25]],"date-time":"2022-01-25T12:15:08Z","timestamp":1643112908000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":21,"title":["ADHD and Neurodegenerative Disease Risk: A Critical Examination of the Evidence"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Sara","family":"Becker","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Manu J.","family":"Sharma","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Brandy L.","family":"Callahan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"S144","DOI":"10.1016\/j.parkreldis.2015.09.034","article-title":"Cognitive impairment in Parkinson\u2019s disease and dementia with Lewy bodies","volume":"22","author":"Aarsland","year":"2016","journal-title":"Parkinsonism Relat. Disord."},{"key":"B2","volume-title":"Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders","year":"2013"},{"key":"B3","unstructured":"Adult attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: key conceptual issues568578\n            AshersonP.\n            BuitelaarJ.\n            FaraoneS. V.\n            RohdeL. A.\n          10.1016\/S2215-0366(16)30032-327183901Lancet Psychiatry32016"},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.121.1.65","article-title":"Behavioral inhibition, sustained attention and executive functions: constructing a unifying theory of ADHD","volume":"121","author":"Barkley","year":"1997","journal-title":"Psychol. Bull."},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e12016","DOI":"10.1002\/trc2.12016","article-title":"Agitation and impulsivity in mid and late life as possible risk markers for incident dementia","volume":"6","author":"Bateman","year":"2020","journal-title":"Alzheimer\u2019s Dement. (N Y)"},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"142","DOI":"10.1097\/HRP.0000000000000283","article-title":"Is attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder a risk syndrome for Parkinson\u2019s disease","volume":"29","author":"Baumeister","year":"2021","journal-title":"Harv. Rev. Psychiatry"},{"key":"B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"821","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclinepi.2010.10.006","article-title":"Development and use of reporting guidelines for assessing the quality of validation studies of health administrative data","volume":"64","author":"Benchimol","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Clin. Epidemiol."},{"key":"B8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"604","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jagp.2020.10.018","article-title":"Cognitive trajectories in comorbid dementia with schizophrenia or bipolar disorder: the south london and maudsley nhs foundation trust biomedical research centre (SLaM BRC) case register","volume":"29","author":"Bendayan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am. J. Geriatr. Psychiatry"},{"key":"B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"575","DOI":"10.3233\/JAD-160847","article-title":"Effect of vascular risk factors on the progression of mild Alzheimer\u2019s disease and lewy body dementia","volume":"56","author":"Bergland","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Alzheimer\u2019s Dis."},{"key":"B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(05)66915-2","article-title":"Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder","volume":"366","author":"Biederman","year":"2005","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1217","DOI":"10.4088\/jcp.v69n0803","article-title":"Educational and occupational underattainment in adults with attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder: a controlled study","volume":"69","author":"Biederman","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Clin. Psychiatry"},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"857","DOI":"10.1017\/S003329171900076X","article-title":"Revisiting ADHD age-of-onset in adults: to what extent should we rely on the recall of childhood symptoms","volume":"50","author":"Breda","year":"2020","journal-title":"Psychol. Med."},{"key":"B13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3389\/fnagi.2017.00260","article-title":"Adult ADHD: risk factor for dementia or phenotypic mimic","volume":"9","author":"Callahan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Aging Neurosci."},{"key":"B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"518","DOI":"10.1017\/S1092852918001190","article-title":"Examining the validity of the ADHD concept in adults and older adults","volume":"24","author":"Callahan","year":"2019","journal-title":"CNS Spectr."},{"key":"B15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/10870547211060546","article-title":"Cognitive and neuroimaging profiles of older adults with attention deficit\/hyperactivity disorder presenting to a memory clinic","author":"Callahan","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Atten. Disord."},{"key":"B16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e198714","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2019.8714","article-title":"Attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder and mortality risk in Taiwan","volume":"2","author":"Chen","year":"2019","journal-title":"JAMA Netw. Open."},{"key":"B18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0204516","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0204516","article-title":"Common psychiatric and metabolic comorbidity of adult attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder: a population-based cross-sectional study","volume":"13","author":"Chen","year":"2018","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"B17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"17m11607","DOI":"10.4088\/JCP.17m11607","article-title":"Risk of type 2 diabetes in adolescents and young adults with attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder","volume":"79","author":"Chen","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Clin. Psychiatry"},{"key":"B19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ridd.2017.04.011","article-title":"The risk of injury in adults with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: a nationwide, matched-cohort, population-based study in Taiwan","volume":"65","author":"Chien","year":"2017","journal-title":"Res. Dev. Disabil."},{"key":"B21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1192\/bjp.bp.112.123299","article-title":"Adult attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and obesity: epidemiological study","volume":"203","author":"Cortese","year":"2013","journal-title":"Br. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"B22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e1","DOI":"10.4088\/PCC.10r00951pur","article-title":"Challenges in identifying and managing attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder in adults in the primary care setting: a review of the literature","volume":"12","author":"Culpepper","year":"2010","journal-title":"Prim. Care Companion J. Clin. Psychiatry"},{"key":"B23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2548","DOI":"10.1038\/s41386-018-0207-5","article-title":"Increased risk of diseases of the basal ganglia and cerebellum in patients with a history of attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder","volume":"43","author":"Curtin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Neuropsychopharmacology"},{"key":"B24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"416","DOI":"10.1177\/1087054713520616","article-title":"Accuracy of electronic health record-derived data for the identification of incident ADHD","volume":"21","author":"Daley","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Atten. Disord."},{"key":"B25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0031500","article-title":"A population-based study of attention deficit\/hyperactivity disorder symptoms and associated impairment in middle-aged adults","volume":"7","author":"Das","year":"2012","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"B26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"774","DOI":"10.1016\/S2215-0366(21)00171-1","article-title":"Mapping phenotypic and aetiological associations between ADHD and physical conditions in adulthood in Sweden: a genetically informed register study","volume":"8","author":"Du Rietz","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lancet. Psychiatry"},{"key":"B27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"582","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.24335","article-title":"Polygenic risk of Parkinson disease is correlated with disease age at onset","volume":"77","author":"Nalls","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ann. Neurol."},{"key":"B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"963689720947416","DOI":"10.1177\/0963689720947416","article-title":"The association between Parkinson\u2019s disease and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder","volume":"29","author":"Fan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell Transplant."},{"key":"B29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"15020","DOI":"10.1038\/nrdp.2015.20","article-title":"Attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder","volume":"1","author":"Faraone","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Dis. Primers"},{"key":"B30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1007\/s12402-016-0208-3","article-title":"The descriptive epidemiology of DSM-IV Adult ADHD in the World Health Organization World Mental Health Surveys","volume":"9","author":"Fayyad","year":"2017","journal-title":"Atten. Defic. Hyperact. Disord."},{"key":"B31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"186","DOI":"10.1159\/000336356","article-title":"Accuracy and sensitivity of parkinsonian disorder diagnoses in two Swedish national health registers","volume":"38","author":"Feldman","year":"2012","journal-title":"Neuroepidemiology"},{"key":"B32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1017\/cjn.2015.244","article-title":"Early-onset vs. late-onset Parkinson\u2019s disease: a clinical-pathological study","volume":"43","author":"Ferguson","year":"2016","journal-title":"Can. J. Neurol. Sci."},{"key":"B33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuint.2017.08.005","article-title":"Antecedent ADHD, dementia and metabolic dysregulation: A U.S. based cohort analysis","volume":"112","author":"Fluegge","year":"2018","journal-title":"Neurochem. Int."},{"key":"B34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"852","DOI":"10.1038\/ijo.2010.214","article-title":"Association between attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder symptoms and obesity and hypertension in early adulthood: a population-based study","volume":"35","author":"Fuemmeler","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Obes."},{"key":"B35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eurpsy.2017.07.007","article-title":"Stress, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms and tobacco smoking: the i-share study","volume":"45","author":"Gal\u00e9ra","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eur. Psychiatry"},{"key":"B36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1111\/acps.13297","article-title":"Healthcare utilization and costs of psychiatric and somatic comorbidities associated with newly diagnosed adult ADHD","volume":"144","author":"Garcia-Argibay","year":"2021","journal-title":"Acta Psychiatr. Scand."},{"key":"B37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e9","DOI":"10.4081\/mi.2010.e9","article-title":"ADHD-hyperactive\/impulsive subtype in adults","volume":"2","author":"Gibbins","year":"2010","journal-title":"Ment. Illn."},{"key":"B38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"PCC.13r01600","DOI":"10.4088\/PCC.13r01600","article-title":"Underdiagnosis of attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder in adult patients: a review of the literature","volume":"16","author":"Ginsberg","year":"2014","journal-title":"Prim Care Companion CNS Disord."},{"key":"B39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1468-1331.2010.03064.x","article-title":"Previous adult attention-deficit and hyperactivity disorder symptoms and risk of dementia with Lewy bodies: a case\u2013control study","volume":"18","author":"Golimstok","year":"2011","journal-title":"Eur. J. Neurol."},{"key":"B40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"435","DOI":"10.1212\/CON.0000000000000309","article-title":"Lewy Body Dementias","volume":"22","author":"Gomperts","year":"2016","journal-title":"Continuum"},{"key":"B41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1007\/s40266-015-0327-0","article-title":"Clinical presentation, diagnosis and treatment of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in older adults: a review of the evidence and its implications for clinical care","volume":"33","author":"Goodman","year":"2016","journal-title":"Drugs Aging"},{"key":"B42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"425","DOI":"10.1177\/0031512517690607","article-title":"Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and motor impairment","volume":"124","author":"Goulardins","year":"2017","journal-title":"Percept. Mot. Skills"},{"key":"B43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"819","DOI":"10.1136\/jnnp.2006.103788","article-title":"Gender differences in Parkinson\u2019s disease","volume":"78","author":"Haaxma","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry"},{"key":"B44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0198736","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0198736","article-title":"Identifying Parkinson\u2019s disease and parkinsonism cases using routinely collected healthcare data: a systematic review","volume":"14","author":"Harding","year":"2019","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"B45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"705","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-7610.1996.tb01462.x","article-title":"Tracking procedures and attrition containment in a long-term follow-up of a community-based ADHD sample","volume":"37","author":"Hartsough","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"B46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1186\/1472-6947-10-23","article-title":"Validity of registration of ICD codes and prescriptions in a research database in Swedish primary care: a cross-sectional study in Skaraborg primary care database","volume":"10","author":"Hjerpe","year":"2010","journal-title":"BMC Med. Inform. Decis. Mak."},{"key":"B47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.1007\/s12402-013-0107-9","article-title":"Altered serum mono- and polyunsaturated fatty acid levels in adults with ADHD","volume":"5","author":"Irmisch","year":"2013","journal-title":"ADHD Atten. Deficit Hyperact. Disord."},{"key":"B48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1017\/S1041610217001880","article-title":"Affective and emotional dysregulation as pre-dementia risk markers: exploring the mild behavioral impairment symptoms of depression, anxiety, irritability and euphoria","volume":"30","author":"Ismail","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. Psychogeriatrics"},{"key":"B49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"552","DOI":"10.1007\/s11920-012-0305-8","article-title":"Attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder in older adults: prevalence and possible connections to mild cognitive impairment","volume":"14","author":"Ivanchak","year":"2012","journal-title":"Curr. Psychiatry Rep."},{"key":"B50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1105","DOI":"10.1097\/MLR.0b013e3181ef9d3e","article-title":"The development, evolution and modifications of ICD-10: challenges to the international comparability of morbidity data","volume":"48","author":"Jett\u00e9","year":"2010","journal-title":"Med. Care"},{"key":"B51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/7854_2010_115","article-title":"ADHD in children and adults: diagnosis and prognosis","volume":"9","author":"Kieling","year":"2012","journal-title":"Curr. Top. Behav. Neurosci."},{"key":"B52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"477","DOI":"10.1002\/mds.870130317","article-title":"Hyperkinetic movement disorders misdiagnosed as tics in gilles de la tourette syndrome","volume":"13","author":"Kompliti","year":"1998","journal-title":"Mov. Disord."},{"key":"B53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"652","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sleep.2010.02.012","article-title":"Sleep and ADHD","volume":"11","author":"Konofal","year":"2010","journal-title":"Sleep Med."},{"key":"B54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1371","DOI":"10.1080\/14737175.2016.1204914","article-title":"ADHD in old age: a review of the literature and proposal for assessment and treatment","volume":"16","author":"Kooij","year":"2016","journal-title":"Expert Rev. Neurother."},{"key":"B55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e62422","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0062422","article-title":"Increased risk of dementia in patients with mild traumatic brain injury: a nationwide cohort study","volume":"8","author":"Lee","year":"2013","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"B56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"220","DOI":"10.3389\/fped.2017.00220","article-title":"The risk of hospitalizations with injury diagnoses in a matched cohort of children and adolescents with and without attention deficit\/hyperactivity disorder in Germany: a database study","volume":"5","author":"Lindemann","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Pediatr."},{"key":"B57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jadohealth.2018.02.012","article-title":"Risk of traumatic brain injury among children, adolescents and young adults with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in taiwan","volume":"63","author":"Liou","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Adolesc. Heal."},{"key":"B58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"413","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(20)30367-6","article-title":"Dementia prevention, intervention and care: 2020 report of the lancet commission","volume":"396","author":"Livingston","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"B59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"622","DOI":"10.1097\/WCO.0000000000000714","article-title":"Sex differences in neurodevelopmental disorders","volume":"32","author":"May","year":"2019","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Neurol."},{"key":"B60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"234","DOI":"10.1186\/s12913-016-1489-0","article-title":"Methodological issues on the use of administrative data in healthcare research: the case of heart failure hospitalizations in Lombardy region, 2000 to 2012","volume":"16","author":"Mazzali","year":"2016","journal-title":"BMC Health. Serv. Res."},{"key":"B61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0000000000004058","article-title":"Diagnosis and management of dementia with Lewy bodies: fourth consensus report of the DLB Consortium","volume":"89","author":"McKeith","year":"2017","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"B62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1113","DOI":"10.1212\/wnl.47.5.1113","article-title":"Consensus guidelines for the clinical and pathologic diagnosis of dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB): report of the consortium on DLB international workshop","volume":"47","author":"McKeith","year":"1996","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"B64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"939","DOI":"10.1212\/wnl.34.7.939","article-title":"Clinical diagnosis of Alzheimer\u2019s disease: report of the NINCDS-ADRDA work group* under the auspices of department of health and human services task force on Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"34","author":"McKhann","year":"1984","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"B63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jalz.2011.03.005","article-title":"The diagnosis of dementia due to Alzheimer\u2019s disease: recommendations from the national institute on aging-Alzheimer\u2019s association workgroups on diagnostic guidelines for Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"7","author":"McKhann","year":"2011","journal-title":"Alzheimers Dement."},{"key":"B65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"530","DOI":"10.1016\/j.parkreldis.2014.02.013","article-title":"Comparing clinical features of young onset, middle onset and late onset Parkinson\u2019s disease","volume":"20","author":"Mehanna","year":"2014","journal-title":"Parkinsonism. Relat. Disord."},{"key":"B66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"298","DOI":"10.1192\/bjp.bp.111.101196","article-title":"Prevalence of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in older adults in the netherlands","volume":"201","author":"Michielsen","year":"2012","journal-title":"Br. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"B67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1186\/s13195-018-0417-4","article-title":"Sex ratio in dementia with Lewy bodies balanced between Alzheimer\u2019s disease and Parkinson\u2019s disease dementia: a cross-sectional study","volume":"10","author":"Mouton","year":"2018","journal-title":"Alzheimers Res. Ther."},{"key":"B68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1016\/j.puhe.2016.12.024","article-title":"Coding accuracy for Parkinson\u2019s disease hospital admissions: implications for healthcare planning in the UK","volume":"146","author":"Muzerengi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Public Health"},{"key":"B69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1017\/s1092852900026158","article-title":"The complexity of ADHD: diagnosis and treatment of the adult patient with comorbidities","volume":"12","author":"Newcorn","year":"2007","journal-title":"CNS Spectr."},{"key":"B70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1620","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1475-6773.2005.00444.x","article-title":"Measuring diagnoses: ICD code accuracy","volume":"40","author":"O\u2019Malley","year":"2005","journal-title":"Health Serv. Res."},{"key":"B71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"308","DOI":"10.1186\/s12913-021-06302-w","article-title":"Exploring the differences in ICD and hospital morbidity data collection features across countries: an international survey","volume":"21","author":"Otero Varela","year":"2021","journal-title":"BMC Health. Serv. Res."},{"key":"B72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"942","DOI":"10.1176\/ajp.2007.164.6.942","article-title":"The worldwide prevalence of ADHD: a systematic review and metaregression analysis","volume":"164","author":"Polanczyk","year":"2007","journal-title":"Am. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"B73","first-page":"48","article-title":"Distinguishing between adult ADHD and mild cognitive impairment","volume":"8","author":"Pollack","year":"2012","journal-title":"Curr. Psychiatry"},{"key":"B74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"S29","DOI":"10.3233\/JPD-202135","article-title":"Young onset Parkinson\u2019s disease: a modern and tailored approach","volume":"10","author":"Post","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Parkinsons Dis."},{"key":"B75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.2147\/NDT.S104706","article-title":"Assessment and monitoring of treatment response in adult ADHD patients: current perspectives","volume":"13","author":"Ramsay","year":"2017","journal-title":"Neuropsychiatr. Dis. Treat."},{"key":"B76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"830","DOI":"10.1007\/s00115-001-1215-x","article-title":"Wender utah rating scale (WURS-k) die deutsche kurzform zur retrospektiven erfassung des hyperkinetischen syndroms bei erwachsenen","volume":"73","author":"Retz-Junginger","year":"2002","journal-title":"Nervenarzt"},{"key":"B77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"684","DOI":"10.3109\/15622975.2010.483249","article-title":"Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in adults","volume":"11","author":"Rosler","year":"2010","journal-title":"World J. Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"B78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1708\/3142.31249","article-title":"ADHD in adults: clinical subtypes and associated characteristics","volume":"54","author":"Salvi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Riv. Psichiatr."},{"key":"B79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"355","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(06)70411-2","article-title":"Epidemiological, clinical and genetic characteristics of early-onset parkinsonism","volume":"5","author":"Schrag","year":"2006","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol."},{"key":"B80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"274","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0039-1678579","article-title":"Parkinson\u2019s disease dementia and lewy body disease","volume":"39","author":"Sezgin","year":"2019","journal-title":"Semin. Neurol."},{"key":"B81","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"669","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jagp.2020.10.016","article-title":"A call for research on the validity of the age-of-onset criterion application in older adults being evaluated for ADHD: a review of the literature in clinical and cognitive psychology","volume":"29","author":"Sharma","year":"2021","journal-title":"Am. J. Geriatr. Psychiatry"},{"key":"B82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1097\/WAD.0b013e318211c83c","article-title":"Relationship between education and dementia: an updated systematic review","volume":"25","author":"Sharp","year":"2011","journal-title":"Alzheimer Dis. Assoc. Disord."},{"key":"B83","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.3988\/jcn.2012.8.1.15","article-title":"Drug-induced parkinsonism","volume":"8","author":"Shin","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Clin. Neurol."},{"key":"B84","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"340","DOI":"10.1080\/13803395.2021.1923665","article-title":"Empirically-informed guidelines for first-time adult ADHD diagnosis","volume":"43","author":"Sibley","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Clin. Exp. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"B85","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1052","DOI":"10.1037\/a0029098","article-title":"When diagnosing ADHD in young adults emphasize informant reports, DSM items and impairment","volume":"80","author":"Sibley","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Consult. Clin. Psychol."},{"key":"B86","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"140","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.ajp.2017.17030298","article-title":"Late-onset ADHD reconsidered with comprehensive repeated assessments between ages 10 and 25","volume":"175","author":"Sibley","year":"2017","journal-title":"Am. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"B87","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1049","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0b013e3182684707","article-title":"Recommendations for optimal ICD codes to study neurologic conditions","volume":"79","author":"St. Germaine-Smith","year":"2012","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"B88","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"964","DOI":"10.1002\/mds.20479","article-title":"Identifying and distinguishing cases of parkinsonism and Parkinson\u2019s disease using ICD-9 CM codes and pharmacy data","volume":"20","author":"Swarztrauber","year":"2005","journal-title":"Mov. Disord."},{"key":"B89","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1159\/000089910","article-title":"Childhood inattention and hyperactivity symptoms self-reported by adults with asperger syndrome","volume":"39","author":"Tani","year":"2006","journal-title":"Psychopathology"},{"key":"B90","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eurpsy.2017.06.005","article-title":"Neuropsychological deficits in adults age 60 and above with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder","volume":"45","author":"Thorell","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eur. Psychiatry"},{"key":"B91","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"995","DOI":"10.1177\/1087054717714057","article-title":"Risk of dementia in adults with ADHD: a nationwide, population-based cohort study in Taiwan","volume":"23","author":"Tzeng","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Atten. Disord."},{"key":"B92","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1783","DOI":"10.1111\/jgs.13612","article-title":"Multimorbidity and risk of mild cognitive impairment","volume":"63","author":"Vassilaki","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Am. Geriatr. Soc."},{"key":"B93","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1935","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMcp1212625","article-title":"Adult attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder","volume":"369","author":"Volkow","year":"2013","journal-title":"N Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"B94","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-211-73574-9_38","article-title":"Association of Parkinson\u2019s disease with symptoms of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in childhood","volume":"72","author":"Walitza","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Neural Transm."},{"key":"B95","volume-title":"The Newcastle-Ottawa Scale (NOS) for Assessing the Quality of Nonrandomised Studies in Meta-Analyses","author":"Wells","year":"2011"},{"key":"B96","first-page":"A4391","article-title":"Validation of hospital register-based diagnosis of Parkinson\u2019s disease","volume":"59","author":"Wermuth","year":"2012","journal-title":"Dan. Med. J."},{"key":"B97","first-page":"118","article-title":"Basal ganglia, functional organization","author":"Wichmann","year":"2010"},{"key":"B98","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"805","DOI":"10.1136\/jnnp.2008.162222","article-title":"Prevalence and age of onset of Parkinson\u2019s disease in Cardiff: a community based cross sectional study and meta-analysis","volume":"80","author":"Wickremaratchi","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry"},{"key":"B99","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1038","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jalz.2018.02.016","article-title":"Identifying dementia cases with routinely collected health data: A systematic review","volume":"14","author":"Wilkinson","year":"2018","journal-title":"Alzheimer\u2019s Dement."},{"key":"B100","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1016\/j.parkreldis.2017.09.021","article-title":"Genetic risk factors in Finnish patients with Parkinson\u2019s disease","volume":"45","author":"Yl\u00f6nen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Parkinsonism. Relat. Disord."},{"key":"B101","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/alz.12462","article-title":"Attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder and Alzheimer\u2019s disease and any dementia: a multi-generation cohort study in Sweden","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Alzheimer\u2019s Dement."},{"key":"B102","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"379","DOI":"10.1037\/\/1040-3590.14.4.379","article-title":"Concordance of self- and informant ratings of adults\u2019 current and childhood attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder symptoms","volume":"14","author":"Zucker","year":"2002","journal-title":"Psychol. Assess."}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fnagi.2021.826213\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,25]],"date-time":"2022-01-25T12:15:17Z","timestamp":1643112917000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fnagi.2021.826213\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,25]]},"references-count":101,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fnagi.2021.826213"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fnagi.2021.826213","relation":{},"ISSN":["1663-4365"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1663-4365","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,25]]},"article-number":"826213"}}