{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,4]],"date-time":"2026-09-04T02:33:12Z","timestamp":1788489192185,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":76,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,19]],"date-time":"2023-10-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1697673600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Aging Neurosci."],"abstract":"<jats:p>Controversies surrounding the validity of the toxic proteinopathy theory of Alzheimer\u2019s disease have led the scientific community to seek alternative theories in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative disorders (ND). Recent studies have provided evidence of a microbiome in the central nervous system. Some have hypothesized that brain-inhabiting organisms induce chronic neuroinflammation, leading to the development of a spectrum of NDs. Bacteria such as <jats:italic>Chlamydia pneumoniae<\/jats:italic>, <jats:italic>Helicobacter pylori<\/jats:italic>, and <jats:italic>Cutibacterium acnes<\/jats:italic> have been found to inhabit the brains of ND patients. Furthermore, several fungi, including <jats:italic>Candida<\/jats:italic> and <jats:italic>Malassezia<\/jats:italic> species, have been identified in the central nervous system of these patients. However, there remains several limitations to the brain microbiome hypothesis. Varying results across the literature, concerns regarding sample contamination, and the presence of exogenous deoxyribonucleic acids have led to doubts about the hypothesis. These results provide valuable insight into the pathogenesis of NDs. Herein, we provide a review of the evidence for and against the brain microbiome theory and describe the difficulties facing the hypothesis. Additionally, we define possible mechanisms of bacterial invasion of the brain and organism-related neurodegeneration in NDs and the potential therapeutic premises of this theory.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fnagi.2023.1240945","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,19]],"date-time":"2023-10-19T07:45:16Z","timestamp":1697701516000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":31,"title":["Brain-inhabiting bacteria and neurodegenerative diseases: the \u201cbrain microbiome\u201d theory"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Tarek Ziad","family":"Arabi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Aliyah Abdulmohsen","family":"Alabdulqader","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Belal Nedal","family":"Sabbah","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Abderrahman","family":"Ouban","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2622","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2019.02622","article-title":"Brain microbiota in Huntington\u2019s disease patients","volume":"10","author":"Alonso","year":"","journal-title":"Front. 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