{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,7]],"date-time":"2026-05-07T06:15:20Z","timestamp":1778134520794,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":51,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,7]],"date-time":"2026-05-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1778112000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Aging Neurosci."],"abstract":"<jats:p>\n                    Parkinson\u2019s disease (PD) and dementia have risen markedly in many regions. While aging, genetics, toxicants, and protein misfolding explain key aspects of pathology, they do not fully account for synchronized temporal trends or pronounced regional heterogeneity in recent increases. This hypothesis and theory article proposes that persistent microorganisms in industrial food systems\u2014particularly biofilm-forming spirochetes in high-throughput poultry processing\u2014may represent an under-recognized upstream contributor via the gut\u2013brain axis. Analysis of Global Burden of Disease and FAOSTAT data reveals a population-level temporal alignment between rising PD incidence and poultry consumption in the United States and China, with a multi-year lag consistent with prodromal disease phases. In contrast, countries with differing sanitation and feed-chain policies (e.g., Israel\u2019s kosher salting and Germany\u2019s oxidative\/thermal methods) show more stable neurodegenerative trends despite high poultry intake. These patterns suggest that sanitation chemistry, processing throughput, and animal-protein recycling may influence long-term microbial exposure risk. The proposed model integrates infection, gut\u2013brain signaling, and protein-misfolding pathways by positioning chronic microbial persistence as a plausible initiating or amplifying factor. Supporting observations include spirochete detection in neurodegenerative tissue, biofilm adaptation under disinfection stress, and experimental evidence linking intestinal bacteria to\n                    <jats:italic>\u03b1<\/jats:italic>\n                    -synuclein pathology. Testable predictions include detection of resilient spirochetes or related taxa in post-sanitation products and higher microbial signatures in relevant patient samples.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fnagi.2026.1798699","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,7]],"date-time":"2026-05-07T05:41:20Z","timestamp":1778132480000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Food-chain spirochetes: a unified hypothesis for Parkinson\u2019s disease and dementia risk"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"18","author":[{"given":"Linda M.","family":"Sweeney","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Independent Researcher","place":["Woodland, WA, United States"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"859","DOI":"10.3233\/JAD-160388","article-title":"Alzheimer\u2019s disease: a spirochetosis","volume":"54","author":"Allen","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Alzheimer's Dis"},{"key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1011","DOI":"10.1002\/alz.13809","article-title":"2024 Alzheimer\u2019s disease facts and figures","volume":"20","year":"2024","journal-title":"Alzheimers Dement."},{"key":"ref21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"987","DOI":"10.1007\/s00702-025-02984-2","article-title":"Declining incidence of Parkinson\u2019s disease in Israel","volume":"132","author":"Balash","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Neural Transm. (Vienna)"},{"key":"ref3","volume-title":"Antimicrobial use in Poultry Processing","author":"Bourassa","year":"2017"},{"key":"ref4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1017","DOI":"10.1080\/08927014.2011.626899","article-title":"Resistance of bacterial biofilms to disinfectants: a review","volume":"27","author":"Bridier","year":"2011","journal-title":"Biofouling"},{"key":"ref5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1186\/s13024-024-00718-6","article-title":"The endotoxin hypothesis of Alzheimer's disease","volume":"19","author":"Brown","year":"2024","journal-title":"Mol. Neurodegener."},{"key":"ref6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.1038\/nrm2870","article-title":"Prion-like transmission of protein aggregates in neurodegenerative diseases","volume":"11","author":"Brundin","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1080\/03079450600714178","article-title":"A survey of 222 commercial broiler flocks for Brachyspira infection in Great Britain","volume":"35","author":"Burch","year":"2006","journal-title":"Avian Pathol."},{"key":"ref8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1038\/s41514-017-0013-z","article-title":"How does hormesis impact biology, toxicology, and medicine?","volume":"3","author":"Calabrese","year":"2017","journal-title":"NPJ Aging Mech Dis."},{"key":"ref9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"34477","DOI":"10.1038\/srep34477","article-title":"Exposure to the functional bacterial amyloid protein curli enhances alpha-synuclein aggregation in aged Fischer 344 rats and Caenorhabditis elegans","volume":"6","author":"Chen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"701","DOI":"10.1038\/nrn3346","article-title":"Mind-altering microorganisms: the impact of the gut microbiota on brain and behaviour","volume":"13","author":"Cryan","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2020.06.008","article-title":"The microbiome as a modifier of neurodegenerative disease risk: an emerging concept","volume":"28","author":"Fang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref12","article-title":"Animal food: ingredients permitted in feed","year":"2024"},{"key":"ref13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"182","DOI":"10.1177\/1877718X241306132","article-title":"Declining trends in the incidence of Parkinson\u2019s disease","volume":"15","author":"Fink","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Parkinsons Dis."},{"key":"ref14","article-title":"FAOSTAT: Food Balance Sheets","year":"2024"},{"key":"ref15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tins.2013.01.005","article-title":"Gut-brain axis: how the microbiome influences anxiety and depression","volume":"36","author":"Foster","year":"2013","journal-title":"Trends Neurosci."},{"key":"ref16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"111181","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pscychresns.2020.111181","article-title":"Alzheimer's disease \u2013 the 'microbial hypothesis' from a clinical and neuroimaging perspective","volume":"306","author":"Fr\u00f6lich","year":"2020","journal-title":"Psychiatry Res. Neuroimaging"},{"key":"ref17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"628045","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2021.628045","article-title":"Detecting Borrelia spirochetes: a case study with validation among autopsy specimens","volume":"12","author":"Gadila","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Neurol."},{"key":"ref18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"898","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2018.00898","article-title":"Biofilms in the food industry: health aspects and control methods","volume":"9","author":"Gali\u00e9","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"939","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(18)30295-3","article-title":"Global, regional, and national burden of Parkinson\u2019s disease, 1990\u20132016: a systematic analysis for the global burden of disease study 2016","volume":"17","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol."},{"key":"ref20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"298","DOI":"10.1016\/j.meatsci.2013.05.023","article-title":"Attachment and biofilm formation by foodborne bacteria in meat processing environments: a review","volume":"97","author":"Giaouris","year":"2014","journal-title":"Meat Sci."},{"key":"ref22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1351801","DOI":"10.3389\/frfst.2024.1351801","article-title":"Ozone treatment of meat and meat products: a review","volume":"4","author":"Gim\u00e9nez","year":"2024","journal-title":"Front. Food Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1616232","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2025.1616232","article-title":"Trends and forecasts of the prevalence and mortality of Alzheimer\u2019s disease in China from 1990 to 2050: a systematic analysis and comparison","volume":"13","author":"Hou","year":"2025","journal-title":"Front. Public Health"},{"key":"ref24","volume-title":"Food Safety and Kosher Poultry Processing Standards","year":""},{"key":"ref25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"366","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.14.2.366-378.2001","article-title":"Diagnostic examination of human intestinal spirochetosis","volume":"14","author":"Jensen","year":"2001","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"875261","DOI":"10.3389\/fnagi.2022.875261","article-title":"The gut microbiome in Parkinson's disease: a longitudinal study of the impacts on disease progression and the use of device-assisted therapies","volume":"14","author":"Lubomski","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Aging Neurosci."},{"key":"ref27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1153","DOI":"10.3233\/JAD-215048","article-title":"Prevalence and incidence rates of dementia in Israel: a national study using electronic health records","volume":"85","author":"Lutski","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Alzheimer's Dis"},{"key":"ref28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.1186\/1742-2094-8-90","article-title":"Alzheimer\u2019s disease\u2014a neurospirochetosis","volume":"8","author":"Miklossy","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Neuroinflammation"},{"key":"ref29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.3389\/fnagi.2015.00046","article-title":"Historic evidence to support a causal relationship between spirochetal infections and Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"7","author":"Miklossy","year":"2015","journal-title":"Front. Aging Neurosci."},{"key":"ref30","article-title":"Per capita consumption of poultry and livestock, 1960\u2013forecast 2026 (lb\/person\/year)","year":""},{"key":"ref31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"108338","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodcont.2021.108338","article-title":"Application of cold plasma and ozone technology for decontamination of Escherichia coli in foods: a review","volume":"130","author":"Niveditha","year":"2021","journal-title":"Food Control"},{"key":"ref32","article-title":"Parkinson\u2019s disease: statistics and facts","year":"2024"},{"key":"ref33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"13363","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.95.23.13363","article-title":"Prions","volume":"95","author":"Prusiner","year":"1998","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.3233\/JAD-2002-4504","article-title":"Molecular and immunological evidence of oral Treponema in the human brain","volume":"4","author":"Riviere","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Alzheimer's Dis"},{"key":"ref35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e13070","DOI":"10.25646\/13070","article-title":"Parkinson disease \u2013 prevalence, trends and regional patterns in Germany: an analysis based on routine data from the statutory health insurance","volume":"10","author":"Rommel","year":"","journal-title":"J Health Monit."},{"key":"ref36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e13079","DOI":"10.25646\/13079","article-title":"Dementia \u2013 prevalence, trends and regional patterns in Germany: an analysis based on routine data from the statutory health insurance","volume":"10","author":"Rommel","year":"","journal-title":"J Health Monit."},{"key":"ref37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1469","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2016.11.018","article-title":"Gut microbiota regulate motor deficits and neuroinflammation in a model of Parkinson\u2019s disease","volume":"167","author":"Sampson","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"344","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(24)00038-3","article-title":"Global, regional, and national burden of disorders affecting the nervous system, 1990\u20132021: a systematic analysis for the global burden of disease study 2021","volume":"23","author":"Steinmetz","year":"2024","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol."},{"key":"ref39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1650","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12061650","article-title":"Meat consumption, cognitive function and disorders: a systematic review with narrative synthesis and meta-analysis","volume":"12","author":"Tong","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"key":"ref40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.10.1.128","article-title":"Brachyspira pilosicoli, an intestinal spirochaete of animals and humans","volume":"10","author":"Trott","year":"1997","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref41","article-title":"Export to China: Non-ruminant feeds, feed ingredients and fats","year":"2024"},{"key":"ref42","article-title":"21 CFR 589.2000\u2014animal proteins prohibited in ruminant feed","year":"2008"},{"key":"ref43","article-title":"Livestock and Meat Domestic Data","year":"2024"},{"key":"ref44","first-page":"38806","article-title":"Pathogen reduction; Hazard analysis and critical control point (HACCP) systems; final rule","volume":"61","year":"1996","journal-title":"Fed. Regist."},{"key":"ref45","article-title":"New Poultry Inspection System (NPIS)","year":"2023"},{"key":"ref46","volume-title":"Poultry \u2013 Production and Value 2024 Summary","year":"2025"},{"key":"ref47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"116","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2012.06.004","article-title":"Occupational exposure to pesticides and Parkinson\u2019s disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis of cohort studies","volume":"117","author":"Van Maele-Fabry","year":"2012","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fm.2012.07.005","article-title":"Occurrence of viable Brachyspira spp. on carcasses of spent laying hens from supermarkets","volume":"32","author":"Verlinden","year":"2012","journal-title":"Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref49","volume-title":"Recognition of Israel as Having Negligible BSE risk under the Terrestrial Animal Health Code","year":"2011"},{"key":"ref50","first-page":"173","article-title":"Recognition of Israel\u2019s BSE status: review of surveillance and feed-ban regulations","volume":"69","author":"Yakobson","year":"2014","journal-title":"Isr. J. Vet. Med."},{"key":"ref51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/nqab003","article-title":"Meat consumption and risk of incident dementia: cohort study of 493,888 UK biobank participants","volume":"114","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fnagi.2026.1798699\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,7]],"date-time":"2026-05-07T05:41:25Z","timestamp":1778132485000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fnagi.2026.1798699\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,7]]},"references-count":51,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fnagi.2026.1798699"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fnagi.2026.1798699","relation":{},"ISSN":["1663-4365"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1663-4365","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,7]]},"article-number":"1798699"}}