{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,24]],"date-time":"2026-09-24T14:07:10Z","timestamp":1790258830779,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":114,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,23]],"date-time":"2026-09-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790121600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Behav. Neurosci."],"abstract":"<jats:p>Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by impaired social communication and repetitive stereotyped behaviors, with a rising global prevalence. Its etiology involves genetic, environmental, and epigenetic interactions, among which essential elements [including trace elements such as zinc (Zn), selenium (Se), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn) and macrominerals like magnesium (Mg)] and toxic metals (lead (Pb), mercury (Hg), cadmium (Cd)) are key environmental regulators of neurodevelopment. This narrative review systematically summarizes the association between these elements and ASD in children. Core findings confirm that Zn\/Se\/Fe\/Mg deficiency, tissue-specific Cu imbalance (elevated plasma, reduced hair), Pb\/Hg accumulation, and Zn-Cu ratio imbalance are significantly correlated with ASD occurrence and severity. These abnormalities disrupt neurotransmitter homeostasis, oxidative stress balance, and synaptic plasticity, which pathways closely linked to ASD pathogenesis. Critically, we highlight the tissue-specific distribution patterns of these elements (differences across blood, hair, urine, and nails) and the multifactorial regulatory network involving genetic variants (e.g., metal transporter genes, metallothioneins), environmental exposures (diet, pollutants, pesticides), individual differences (age, gender), and comorbidities (gastrointestinal dysfunction). Intervention evidence shows that supplementing deficient essential elements or reducing toxic metal exposure may alleviate ASD symptoms, though study quality and methodological heterogeneity limit causal inferences. This review provides a theoretical basis for ASD pathogenesis research, early diagnosis, and targeted element-based interventions.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fnbeh.2026.1944510","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,23]],"date-time":"2026-09-23T12:37:13Z","timestamp":1790167033000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Essential element and toxic metal dyshomeostasis in childhood autism spectrum disorder: a comprehensive narrative review of correlations, tissue-specific distribution, and multifactorial regulation"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"20","author":[{"given":"Qian","family":"Du","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Meishan Women and Children\u2019s Hospital, Alliance Hospital of West China Second University Hospital, Meishan","place":["Sichuan, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Qunying","family":"Zhou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Meishan Women and Children\u2019s Hospital, Alliance Hospital of West China Second University Hospital, Meishan","place":["Sichuan, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Li","family":"Yu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Hongya County Psychiatric Hospital, Meishan","place":["Sichuan, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yunchao","family":"Ye","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Meishan Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Meishan","place":["Sichuan, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xiaoling","family":"Wu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Hongya County People\u2019s Hospital, Meishan","place":["Sichuan, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1007\/s12011-021-02654-w","article-title":"Assessment of urinary lead (Pb) and essential trace elements in Autism Spectrum Disorder: A case-control study among preschool children in Malaysia.","volume":"200","author":"Abd Wahil","year":"2022","journal-title":"Biol. Trace. Elem. Res."},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1262","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2019.03.032","article-title":"Selenium drives a transcriptional adaptive program to block ferroptosis and treat stroke.","volume":"177","author":"Alim","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"115755","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ab.2024.115755","article-title":"Exploring the association between serum magnesium level and Autism Spectrum Disorder using validated spectrofluorimetric method.","volume":"699","author":"Almalki","year":"2025","journal-title":"Anal. Biochem."},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2020.00032","article-title":"C2H2-Type Zinc finger proteins in brain development, neurodevelopmental, and other neuropsychiatric disorders: Systematic literature-based analysis.","volume":"11","author":"Al-Naama","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Neurol."},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"449","DOI":"10.1023\/a:1025071014191","article-title":"Plasma amino acids profiles in children with autism: Potential risk of nutritional deficiencies.","volume":"33","author":"Arnold","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Autism. Dev. Disord."},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"114561","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2023.114561","article-title":"The role of environmental trace element toxicants on autism: A medical biogeochemistry perspective.","volume":"251","author":"Awadh","year":"2023","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf."},{"key":"B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"715","DOI":"10.1007\/s10534-014-9764-1","article-title":"Loss of COMMD1 and copper overload disrupt zinc homeostasis and influence an autism-associated pathway at glutamatergic synapses.","volume":"27","author":"Baecker","year":"2014","journal-title":"Biometals"},{"key":"B8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1130922","DOI":"10.3389\/fnmol.2023.1130922","article-title":"The role of selenoproteins in neurodevelopment and neurological function: Implications in Autism Spectrum Disorder.","volume":"16","author":"Behl","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front. Mol. Neurosci."},{"key":"B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"186","DOI":"10.4103\/aam.aam_17_17","article-title":"Iron and vitamin D levels among Autism Spectrum Disorders children.","volume":"16","author":"Bener","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ann. Afr. Med."},{"key":"B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.55782\/ane-2013-1932","article-title":"The role of zinc and copper in Autism Spectrum Disorders.","volume":"73","author":"Bjorklund","year":"2013","journal-title":"Acta. Neurobiol. Exp."},{"key":"B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"234","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2018.05.020","article-title":"Toxic metal(loid)-based pollutants and their possible role in Autism Spectrum Disorder.","volume":"166","author":"Bj\u00f8rklund","year":"2018","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1177\/1362361317753565","article-title":"The potential role of insulin-like growth factor-1 and zinc in brain growth of Autism Spectrum Disorder children.","volume":"23","author":"Bou Khalil","year":"2019","journal-title":"Autism"},{"key":"B13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"458","DOI":"10.1021\/acssensors.7b00887","article-title":"Chromis-1, a ratiometric fluorescent probe optimized for two-photon microscopy reveals dynamic changes in labile Zn(II) in differentiating oligodendrocytes.","volume":"3","author":"Bourassa","year":"2018","journal-title":"ACS Sens."},{"key":"B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"238","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jada.2009.10.032","article-title":"Food selectivity and sensory sensitivity in children with Autism Spectrum Disorders.","volume":"110","author":"Cermak","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Am. Diet. Assoc."},{"key":"B15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.5487\/TR.2014.30.4.267","article-title":"Influence of lead on repetitive behavior and dopamine metabolism in a mouse model of iron overload.","volume":"30","author":"Chang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Toxicol. Res."},{"key":"B16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"35738","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-020-09819-5","article-title":"The status of chemical elements in the blood plasma of children with Autism Spectrum Disorder in Tunisia: A case-control study.","volume":"27","author":"Chehbani","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. Int."},{"key":"B17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1121","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2018.10.026","article-title":"Early life exposure to particulate matter air pollution (PM1, PM2.5 and PM10) and autism in Shanghai, China: A case-control study.","volume":"121","author":"Chen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"B18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1017\/S0954422423000215","article-title":"Exploring potential mechanisms for zinc deficiency to impact in Autism Spectrum Disorder: A narrative review.","volume":"37","author":"Conti","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nutr. Res. Rev."},{"key":"B19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1103","DOI":"10.1002\/prca.201500076","article-title":"Expression and oxidative modifications of plasma proteins in Autism Spectrum Disorders: Interplay between inflammatory response and lipid peroxidation.","volume":"10","author":"Cortelazzo","year":"2016","journal-title":"Proteomics. Clin. Appl."},{"key":"B20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"eaat1293","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.aat1293","article-title":"Dynamical features in fetal and postnatal zinc-copper metabolic cycles predict the emergence of Autism Spectrum Disorder.","volume":"4","author":"Curtin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Adv."},{"key":"B21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"342","DOI":"10.1007\/s10803-011-1245-6","article-title":"Lack of correlation between metallic elements analyzed in hair by ICP-MS and autism.","volume":"42","author":"De Palma","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Autism. Dev. Disord."},{"key":"B22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"855S","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/88.3.855S","article-title":"Role of copper in human neurological disorders.","volume":"88","author":"Desai","year":"2008","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"B23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3663","DOI":"10.3390\/nu15163663","article-title":"Zinc status and Autism Spectrum Disorder in children and adolescents: A systematic review.","volume":"15","author":"do Nascimento","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"key":"B24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"152","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pediatrneurol.2006.11.004","article-title":"Children with autism: Effect of iron supplementation on sleep and ferritin.","volume":"36","author":"Dosman","year":"2007","journal-title":"Pediatr. Neurol."},{"key":"B25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1008","DOI":"10.1017\/S0012162206232225","article-title":"Ferritin as an indicator of suspected iron deficiency in children with Autism Spectrum Disorder: Prevalence of low serum ferritin concentration.","volume":"48","author":"Dosman","year":"2006","journal-title":"Dev. Med. Child. Neurol."},{"key":"B26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"409","DOI":"10.1016\/s0091-3057(01)00563-9","article-title":"Iron deficiency decreases dopamine D1 and D2 receptors in rat brain.","volume":"69","author":"Erikson","year":"2001","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav."},{"key":"B27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1080\/13547500902783747","article-title":"The plasma zinc\/serum copper ratio as a biomarker in children with Autism Spectrum Disorders.","volume":"14","author":"Faber","year":"2009","journal-title":"Biomarkers"},{"key":"B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1773","DOI":"10.1136\/gutjnl-2021-325985","article-title":"Bidirectional brain-gut axis effects influence mood and prognosis in IBD: A systematic review and meta-analysis.","volume":"71","author":"Fairbrass","year":"2022","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"B29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"575","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuint.2012.12.006","article-title":"Metals, oxidative stress and neurodegeneration: A focus on iron, manganese and mercury.","volume":"62","author":"Farina","year":"2013","journal-title":"Neurochem. Int."},{"key":"B30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1186\/s12887-023-03987-2","article-title":"The association of vitamin A, zinc and copper levels with clinical symptoms in children with Autism Spectrum Disorders in Jilin Province. China.","volume":"23","author":"Feng","year":"2023","journal-title":"BMC Pediatr."},{"key":"B31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"274","DOI":"10.3390\/nu17020274","article-title":"Amino acid patterns in children with autistic spectrum disorder: A preliminary biochemical evaluation.","volume":"17","author":"Ferraro","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"key":"B32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"126409","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtemb.2019.126409","article-title":"Metal and essential element levels in hair and association with autism severity.","volume":"57","author":"Fiore","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Trace. Elem. Med. Biol."},{"key":"B33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1002\/aur.237","article-title":"Gastrointestinal dysfunction in autism: Parental report, clinical evaluation, and associated factors.","volume":"5","author":"Gorrindo","year":"2012","journal-title":"Autism Res."},{"key":"B34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.nutr.17.1.37","article-title":"Toxic and essential metal interactions.","volume":"17","author":"Goyer","year":"1997","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Nutr."},{"key":"B35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awt303","article-title":"Zinc deficiency dysregulates the synaptic ProSAP\/Shank scaffold and might contribute to Autism Spectrum Disorders.","volume":"137","author":"Grabrucker","year":"2014","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"B36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"576","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2017.06.033","article-title":"Background lead and mercury exposures: Psychological and behavioral problems in children.","volume":"158","author":"Gump","year":"2017","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"B37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1186\/s13052-017-0407-3","article-title":"Iron deficiency parameters in Autism Spectrum Disorder: Clinical correlates and associated factors.","volume":"43","author":"Gunes","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ital. J. Pediatr."},{"key":"B38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"803","DOI":"10.1080\/1028415X.2018.1558762","article-title":"Vitamin and mineral status of children with Autism Spectrum Disorder in Hainan Province of China: Associations with symptoms.","volume":"23","author":"Guo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nutr. Neurosci."},{"key":"B39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.3389\/fnsyn.2018.00011","article-title":"Prospects of Zinc supplementation in Autism Spectrum Disorders and shankopathies such as phelan McDermid syndrome.","volume":"10","author":"Hagmeyer","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Synaptic. Neurosci."},{"key":"B40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1007\/s12011-020-02146-3","article-title":"The role of lead, manganese, and Zinc in Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASDs) and Attention-Deficient Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): A case-control study on syrian children affected by the syrian crisis.","volume":"197","author":"Hawari","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biol. Trace. Elem. Res."},{"key":"B41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1007\/s12011-014-0035-3","article-title":"Effects of sodium selenite on aflatoxin B1-induced decrease of ileal IgA+ cell numbers and immunoglobulin contents in broilers.","volume":"160","author":"He","year":"2014","journal-title":"Biol. Trace. Elem. Res."},{"key":"B42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"108927","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jnutbio.2021.108927","article-title":"Slc39a4 in the small intestine predicts zinc absorption and utilization: A comprehensive analysis of zinc transporter expression in response to diets of varied zinc content in young mice.","volume":"101","author":"Hennigar","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Nutr. Biochem."},{"key":"B43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"212","DOI":"10.1007\/s10803-008-0606-2","article-title":"Does nutritional intake differ between children with Autism Spectrum Disorders and children with typical development?","volume":"39","author":"Herndon","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Autism. Dev. Disord."},{"key":"B44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"671","DOI":"10.3390\/nu9070671","article-title":"Antioxidants mediate both iron homeostasis and oxidative stress.","volume":"9","author":"Imam","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"key":"B45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"340","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mam.2005.07.006","article-title":"Superoxide dismutases and their impact upon human health.","volume":"26","author":"Johnson","year":"2005","journal-title":"Mol. Aspects. Med."},{"key":"B46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.18388\/abp.2016_1380","article-title":"Bioelements in hair of children with selected neurological disorders.","volume":"64","author":"J\u00f3zefczuk","year":"2017","journal-title":"Acta. Biochim. Pol."},{"key":"B47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.17219\/acem\/67222","article-title":"Selenium - a fascinating antioxidant of protective properties.","volume":"27","author":"Kie\u0142czykowska","year":"2018","journal-title":"Adv. Clin. Exp. Med."},{"key":"B48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"280","DOI":"10.1034\/j.1600-0609.2002.02697.x","article-title":"Anaemia and iron-deficiency anaemia in south-east Anatolia.","volume":"69","author":"Kilin\u00e7","year":"2002","journal-title":"Eur. J. Haematol."},{"key":"B49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2014.11.001","article-title":"Genetic epidemiology and insights into interactive genetic and environmental effects in Autism Spectrum Disorders.","volume":"77","author":"Kim","year":"2015","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"B50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"343","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pediatrneurol.2015.06.014","article-title":"Evaluation of periodic limb movements in sleep and iron status in children with autism.","volume":"53","author":"Lane","year":"2015","journal-title":"Pediatr. Neurol."},{"key":"B51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1177\/1362361302006001008","article-title":"Iron deficiency in autism and Asperger syndrome.","volume":"6","author":"Latif","year":"2002","journal-title":"Autism"},{"key":"B52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e1004580","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pgen.1004580","article-title":"Meta-analysis of SHANK mutations in Autism Spectrum Disorders: A gradient of severity in cognitive impairments.","volume":"10","author":"Leblond","year":"2014","journal-title":"PLoS Genet."},{"key":"B53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2533","DOI":"10.1002\/aur.2617","article-title":"Maternal prenatal selenium levels and child risk of neurodevelopmental disorders: A prospective birth cohort study.","volume":"14","author":"Lee","year":"2021","journal-title":"Autism Res."},{"key":"B54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1216","DOI":"10.1097\/WNR.0000000000000251","article-title":"Serum copper and zinc levels in individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorders.","volume":"25","author":"Li","year":"2014","journal-title":"Neuroreport"},{"key":"B55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1318637","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2023.1318637","article-title":"A comparison between children and adolescents with Autism Spectrum Disorders and healthy controls in biomedical factors, trace elements, and microbiota biomarkers: A meta-analysis.","volume":"14","author":"Lin","year":"2024","journal-title":"Front. Psychiatry"},{"key":"B56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"511","DOI":"10.1515\/reveh-2022-0256","article-title":"Blood and hair copper levels in childhood Autism Spectrum Disorder: A meta-analysis based on case-control studies.","volume":"39","author":"Liu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Rev. Environ. Health"},{"key":"B57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"294","DOI":"10.3390\/nu8050294","article-title":"Correlation between nutrition and symptoms: Nutritional survey of children with Autism Spectrum Disorder in Chongqing. China.","volume":"8","author":"Liu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"key":"B58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"371","DOI":"10.1177\/0884533615570376","article-title":"Zinc: Physiology, deficiency, and parenteral nutrition.","volume":"30","author":"Livingstone","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nutr. Clin. Pract."},{"key":"B59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"907","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(15)60865-0","article-title":"Iron deficiency anaemia.","volume":"387","author":"Lopez","year":"2016","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"B60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"508","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(18)31129-2","article-title":"Autism Spectrum Disorder.","volume":"392","author":"Lord","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"B61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"505","DOI":"10.1007\/s12011-021-02690-6","article-title":"Association between essential metal elements and the risk of autism in chinese han population.","volume":"200","author":"Ma","year":"2022","journal-title":"Biol. Trace. Elem. Res."},{"key":"B62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.ss7202a1","article-title":"Prevalence and characteristics of Autism Spectrum Disorder among children Aged 8 Years - autism and developmental disabilities monitoring network, 11 Sites, United States, 2020.","volume":"72","author":"Maenner","year":"2023","journal-title":"MMWR. Surveill. Summ."},{"key":"B63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0619242024","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.0619-24.2024","article-title":"Trans-synaptic association of vesicular Zinc transporter 3 and shank3 supports synapse-specific dendritic spine structure and function in the mouse auditory cortex.","volume":"44","author":"Manning","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"B64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1007\/s10802-012-9668-x","article-title":"Anxiety, sensory over-responsivity, and gastrointestinal problems in children with Autism Spectrum Disorders.","volume":"41","author":"Mazurek","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Abnorm. Child Psychol."},{"key":"B65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"826156","DOI":"10.1155\/2013\/826156","article-title":"Epigenetics and autism.","volume":"2013","author":"Mbadiwe","year":"2013","journal-title":"Autism Res. Treat."},{"key":"B66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"665686","DOI":"10.3389\/fnmol.2021.665686","article-title":"Evaluation of Zn, Cu, and Se levels in the North American Autism Spectrum Disorder population.","volume":"14","author":"Mehta","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Mol. Neurosci."},{"key":"B67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"831799","DOI":"10.3389\/fnmol.2022.831799","article-title":"Corrigendum: Evaluation of Zn, Cu, and Se levels in the North American Autism Spectrum Disorder population.","volume":"15","author":"Mehta","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Mol. Neurosci."},{"key":"B68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"136471","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2019.136471","article-title":"Environmental exposure pathway analysis of trace elements and autism risk in Pakistani children population.","volume":"712","author":"Nabgha-e-Amen, Eqani","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"B69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1186\/1476-069X-13-73","article-title":"A comparison of temporal trends in United States autism prevalence to trends in suspected environmental factors.","volume":"13","author":"Nevison","year":"2014","journal-title":"Environ. Health"},{"key":"B70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2394","DOI":"10.1007\/s12011-024-04319-w","article-title":"Assessment of essential and toxic element levels in the toenails of children with Autism Spectrum Disorder.","volume":"203","author":"Ouisselsat","year":"2025","journal-title":"Biol. Trace Elem. Res."},{"key":"B71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2701","DOI":"10.1007\/s12011-022-03365-6","article-title":"Hair trace elements and mineral content in moroccan children with Autism Spectrum Disorder: A case-control study.","volume":"201","author":"Ouisselsat","year":"2023","journal-title":"Biol. Trace Elem. Res."},{"key":"B72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"220","DOI":"10.1016\/s0306-9877(03)00126-9","article-title":"Excess dietary iron is the root cause for increase in childhood autism and allergies.","volume":"61","author":"Padhye","year":"2003","journal-title":"Med. Hypotheses"},{"key":"B73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"17950","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-018-1957-7","article-title":"A comparison of blood metal levels in Autism Spectrum Disorder and unaffected children in Shenzhen of China and factors involved in bioaccumulation of metals.","volume":"25","author":"Qin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. Int."},{"key":"B74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101518","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rasd.2020.101518","article-title":"Urinary essential elements of young children with Autism Spectrum Disorder and their mothers.","volume":"72","author":"Qureshi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Res. Autism. Spectr. Disord."},{"key":"B75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"126790","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtemb.2021.126790","article-title":"Heavy metals and trace elements in scalp hair samples of children with severe Autism Spectrum Disorder: A case-control study on Jordanian children.","volume":"67","author":"Rashaid","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Trace Elem. Med. Biol."},{"key":"B76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"164938","DOI":"10.1155\/2014\/164938","article-title":"Potential role of selenoenzymes and antioxidant metabolism in relation to autism etiology and pathology.","volume":"2014","author":"Raymond","year":"2014","journal-title":"Autism Res. Treat."},{"key":"B77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"57287","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-022-19933-1","article-title":"A case-control study on the relationship between urine trace element levels and Autism Spectrum Disorder among Iranian children.","volume":"29","author":"Rezaei","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. Int."},{"key":"B78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.4137\/NMI.S6349","article-title":"Decreased zinc and increased copper in individuals with anxiety.","volume":"4","author":"Russo","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nutr. Metab. Insights"},{"key":"B79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"783","DOI":"10.1515\/revneuro-2017-0015","article-title":"Status of essential elements in Autism Spectrum Disorder: Systematic review and meta-analysis.","volume":"28","author":"Saghazadeh","year":"2017","journal-title":"Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"B80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2558","DOI":"10.1002\/aur.3253","article-title":"GABA and glutamate measurements in temporal cortex of autistic children.","volume":"17","author":"Saleh","year":"2024","journal-title":"Autism Res."},{"key":"B81","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"9942","DOI":"10.3748\/wjg.v20.i29.9942","article-title":"Pathophysiology of Autism Spectrum Disorders: Revisiting gastrointestinal involvement and immune imbalance.","volume":"20","author":"Samsam","year":"2014","journal-title":"World. J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"B82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms23116082","article-title":"Prenatal Zinc deficient mice as a model for Autism Spectrum Disorders.","volume":"23","author":"Sauer","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Mol. Sci."},{"key":"B83","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yfrne.2014.03.006","article-title":"Etiologies underlying sex differences in Autism Spectrum Disorders.","volume":"35","author":"Schaafsma","year":"2014","journal-title":"Front. Neuroendocrinol."},{"key":"B84","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.3945\/ajcn.110.004416","article-title":"Maternal periconceptional folic acid intake and risk of Autism Spectrum Disorders and developmental delay in the CHARGE (CHildhood Autism Risks from Genetics and Environment) case-control study.","volume":"96","author":"Schmidt","year":"2012","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"B85","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1006\/brbi.1993.1010","article-title":"Antibodies to myelin basic protein in children with autistic behavior.","volume":"7","author":"Singh","year":"1993","journal-title":"Brain Behav. Immun."},{"key":"B86","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"126539","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtemb.2020.126539","article-title":"Hair trace element concentrations in Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) and Attention Deficit\/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD).","volume":"61","author":"Skalny","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Trace Elem. Med. Biol."},{"key":"B87","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1007\/s11011-016-9899-6","article-title":"Hair toxic and essential trace elements in children with Autism Spectrum Disorder.","volume":"32","author":"Skalny","year":"","journal-title":"Metab. Brain Dis."},{"key":"B88","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1007\/s12011-016-0878-x","article-title":"Analysis of hair trace elements in children with Autism Spectrum Disorders and communication disorders.","volume":"177","author":"Skalny","year":"","journal-title":"Biol. Trace Elem. Res."},{"key":"B89","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1675","DOI":"10.1007\/s11011-017-0056-7","article-title":"Assessment of gender and age effects on serum and hair trace element levels in children with Autism Spectrum Disorder.","volume":"32","author":"Skalny","year":"","journal-title":"Metab. Brain Dis."},{"key":"B90","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"106468","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2021.106468","article-title":"Metal and essential element concentrations during pregnancy and associations with Autism Spectrum Disorder and attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder in children.","volume":"152","author":"Skogheim","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"B91","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"569","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pharep.2014.12.015","article-title":"Oxidative stress as an etiological factor and a potential treatment target of psychiatric disorders. Part 2. Depression, anxiety, schizophrenia and autism.","volume":"67","author":"Smaga","year":"2015","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Rep."},{"key":"B92","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jinorgbio.2015.09.003","article-title":"Importance of selenium and selenoprotein for brain function: From antioxidant protection to neuronal signalling.","volume":"153","author":"Solovyev","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Inorg. Biochem."},{"key":"B93","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1385\/BTER:109:2:097","article-title":"Magnesium profile in autism.","volume":"109","author":"Strambi","year":"2006","journal-title":"Biol. Trace Elem. Res."},{"key":"B94","first-page":"77","article-title":"Hair heavy metal and essential trace element concentration in children with Autism Spectrum Disorder.","author":"Tabatadze","year":"2015","journal-title":"Georgian. Med. News"},{"key":"B95","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"399","DOI":"10.1016\/s0753-3322(03)00081-7","article-title":"Trace elements in human physiology and pathology: Zinc and metallothioneins.","volume":"57","author":"Tapiero","year":"2003","journal-title":"Biomed. Pharmacother."},{"key":"B96","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1007\/s10803-021-04897-x","article-title":"Oxidative stress in adults with Autism Spectrum Disorder: A case control study.","volume":"52","author":"Thorsen","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Autism. Dev. Disord."},{"key":"B97","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nutres.2017.11.004","article-title":"Peripheral iron levels in children with Autism Spectrum Disorders vs controls: A systematic review and meta-analysis.","volume":"50","author":"Tseng","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nutr. Res."},{"key":"B98","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"627","DOI":"10.1007\/s10803-013-1913-9","article-title":"Gender and age differences in the core triad of impairments in Autism Spectrum Disorders: A systematic review and meta-analysis.","volume":"44","author":"Van Wijngaarden-Cremers","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Autism Dev. Disord."},{"key":"B99","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"537","DOI":"10.1007\/s00401-017-1736-4","article-title":"Autism Spectrum Disorder: Neuropathology and animal models.","volume":"134","author":"Varghese","year":"2017","journal-title":"Acta Neuropathol."},{"key":"B100","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1007\/s12011-017-1160-6","article-title":"Protective role of selenium in immune-relevant cytokine and immunoglobulin production by piglet splenic lymphocytes exposed to deoxynivalenol.","volume":"184","author":"Wang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Biol. Trace Elem. Res."},{"key":"B101","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1438","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.9120","article-title":"Autism Spectrum Disorders in relation to distribution of hazardous air pollutants in the san francisco bay area.","volume":"114","author":"Windham","year":"2006","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"B102","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"109034","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jnutbio.2022.109034","article-title":"Supplementation with selenium attenuates autism-like behaviors and improves oxidative stress, inflammation and related gene expression in an autism disease model.","volume":"107","author":"Wu","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Nutr. Biochem."},{"key":"B103","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"88962","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-022-21978-1","article-title":"Associations of essential element serum concentrations with Autism Spectrum Disorder.","volume":"29","author":"Wu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. Int."},{"key":"B104","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1007\/s12011-018-1615-4","article-title":"Evaluation of whole blood trace element levels in chinese children with Autism Spectrum Disorder.","volume":"191","author":"Wu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Biol. Trace Elem. Res."},{"key":"B105","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbr.2007.11.003","article-title":"Effect of perinatal iron deficiency on myelination and associated behaviors in rat pups.","volume":"188","author":"Wu","year":"2008","journal-title":"Behav. Brain Res."},{"key":"B106","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1201","DOI":"10.1007\/s00431-010-1203-x","article-title":"A preliminary study on nutritional status and intake in Chinese children with autism.","volume":"169","author":"Xia","year":"2010","journal-title":"Eur. J. Pediatr."},{"key":"B107","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1038\/srep00129","article-title":"Infantile zinc deficiency: Association with Autism Spectrum Disorders.","volume":"1","author":"Yasuda","year":"2011","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"B108","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2460","DOI":"10.1096\/fj.201801116RR","article-title":"Brain iron loading impairs DNA methylation and alters GABAergic function in mice.","volume":"33","author":"Ye","year":"2019","journal-title":"FASEB J."},{"key":"B109","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lfs.2015.12.039","article-title":"Increased \u03c9-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid\/arachidonic acid ratios and upregulation of signaling mediator in individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorders.","volume":"145","author":"Yui","year":"2016","journal-title":"Life Sci."},{"key":"B110","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"126782","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtemb.2021.126782","article-title":"Trace elements in children with Autism Spectrum Disorder: A meta-analysis based on case-control studies.","volume":"67","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Trace Elem. Med. Biol."},{"key":"B111","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4924","DOI":"10.1007\/s12011-021-03082-6","article-title":"Trace element changes in the plasma of Autism Spectrum Disorder children and the positive correlation between chromium and vanadium.","volume":"200","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Biol. Trace Elem. Res."},{"key":"B112","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"445","DOI":"10.7499\/j.issn.1008-8830.2101163","article-title":"[Association between serum trace elements and core symptoms in children with Autism Spectrum Disorder: A national multicenter survey].","volume":"23","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Zhongguo Dang Dai Er Ke Za Zhi"},{"key":"B113","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"427","DOI":"10.1002\/aur.3302","article-title":"Associations of serum manganese, Zinc, Copper, and selenium concentrations with Autism Spectrum Disorders in chinese children: A case-control study.","volume":"18","author":"Zhang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Autism Res."},{"key":"B114","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"627","DOI":"10.1007\/s12011-022-03197-4","article-title":"Analysis of whole blood and urine trace elements in children with Autism Spectrum Disorders and autistic behaviors.","volume":"201","author":"Zhao","year":"2023","journal-title":"Biol. Trace Elem. Res."}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fnbeh.2026.1944510\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,24]],"date-time":"2026-09-24T13:49:10Z","timestamp":1790257750000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fnbeh.2026.1944510\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,23]]},"references-count":114,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fnbeh.2026.1944510"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fnbeh.2026.1944510","relation":{},"ISSN":["1662-5153"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1662-5153","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,23]]},"article-number":"1944510"}}