{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,29]],"date-time":"2026-10-29T00:55:44Z","timestamp":1793235344710,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":96,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,7]],"date-time":"2023-09-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1694044800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Cell. Neurosci."],"abstract":"<jats:p>Next to acute sickness behavior, septic encephalopathy is the most frequent involvement of the brain during infection. It is characterized by a cross-talk of pro-inflammatory cells across the blood\u2013brain barrier, by microglial activation and leukocyte migration, but not by the entry of infecting organisms into the brain tissue. Septic encephalopathy is very frequent in older persons because of their limited cognitive reserve. The predominant clinical manifestation is delirium, whereas focal neurological signs and symptoms are absent. Electroencephalography is a very sensitive method to detect functional abnormalities, but these abnormalities are not specific for septic encephalopathy and of limited prognostic value. Routine cerebral imaging by computer tomography usually fails to visualize the subtle abnormalities produced by septic involvement of the brain. Magnetic resonance imaging is by far more sensitive to detect vasogenic edema, diffuse axonal injury or small ischemic lesions. Routine laboratory parameters most suitable to monitor sepsis, but not specific for septic encephalopathy, are C-reactive protein and procalcitonin. The additional measurement of interleukin (IL)-6, IL-8, IL-10 and tumor necrosis factor-\u03b1 increases the accuracy to predict delirium and an unfavorable outcome. The most promising laboratory parameters to quantify neuronal and axonal injury caused by septic encephalopathy are neurofilament light chains (NfL) and S100B protein. Neuron-specific enolase (NSE) plasma concentrations are strongly influenced by hemolysis. We propose to determine NSE only in non-hemolytic plasma or serum samples for the estimation of outcome in septic encephalopathy.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fncel.2023.1238149","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,7]],"date-time":"2023-09-07T09:53:34Z","timestamp":1694080414000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":22,"title":["Septic encephalopathy in the elderly \u2013 biomarkers of potential clinical utility"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Sandra","family":"Sch\u00fctze","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Douglas A.","family":"Drevets","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Simone C.","family":"Tauber","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Roland","family":"Nau","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"450","DOI":"10.3389\/fped.2020.00450","article-title":"Transcranial Doppler can predict development and outcome of sepsis-associated encephalopathy in pediatrics with severe sepsis or septic shock","volume":"8","author":"Algebaly","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref2","year":"2022"},{"key":"ref3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcrc.2016.06.012","article-title":"Admission plasma levels of the neuronal injury marker neuron-specific enolase are associated with mortality and delirium in sepsis","volume":"36","author":"Anderson","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"104511","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ebiom.2023.104511","article-title":"The complex genetic architecture of Alzheimer's disease: novel insights and future directions","volume":"90","author":"Andrews","year":"2023","journal-title":"EBioMedicine"},{"key":"ref5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1303","DOI":"10.1097\/00003246-200107000-00002","article-title":"Epidemiology of severe sepsis in the United States: analysis of incidence, outcome, and associated costs of care","volume":"29","author":"Angus","year":"2001","journal-title":"Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"951798","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.951798","article-title":"Modes of action and diagnostic value of miRNAs in sepsis","volume":"13","author":"Antonakos","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0139969","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0139969","article-title":"Early standard electroencephalogram abnormalities predict mortality in septic intensive care unit patients","volume":"10","author":"Azabou","year":"2015","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"ref8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1090","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-05088-z","article-title":"Cluster analysis integrating age and body temperature for mortality in patients with sepsis: a multicenter retrospective study","volume":"12","author":"Baek","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1186\/s13054-021-03862-5","article-title":"Biomarkers for sepsis: more than just fever and leukocytosis-a narrative review","volume":"26","author":"Barichello","year":"2022","journal-title":"Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"401","DOI":"10.1042\/CS20220549","article-title":"Neurochemical effects of sepsis on the brain","volume":"137","author":"Barichello","year":"2023","journal-title":"Clin. Sci. (Lond.)"},{"key":"ref11","first-page":"2179","article-title":"Posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome in infection, sepsis, and shock","volume":"27","author":"Bartynski","year":"2006","journal-title":"AJNR Am. J. Neuroradiol."},{"key":"ref12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0252206","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0252206","article-title":"Evaluation of leukopenia during sepsis as a marker of sepsis-defining organ dysfunction","volume":"16","author":"Belok","year":"2021","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"ref13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"214","DOI":"10.1186\/s13054-023-04497-4","article-title":"Neurofilament light chains to assess sepsis-associated encephalopathy: are we on the track toward clinical implementation?","volume":"27","author":"Bircak-Kuchtova","year":"2023","journal-title":"Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"369","DOI":"10.1136\/jim-2021-002017","article-title":"N-terminal pro-brain natriuretic peptide is an independent predictor of mortality in patients with sepsis","volume":"70","author":"Biswas","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Investig. Med."},{"key":"ref15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0404.1996.tb07066.x","article-title":"Focal neurologic deficits in infective endocarditis and other septic diseases","volume":"94","author":"Bitsch","year":"1996","journal-title":"Acta Neurol. Scand."},{"key":"ref16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e2250126","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2022.50126","article-title":"Incidence of dementia following hospitalization with infection among adults in the atherosclerosis risk in communities (ARIC) study cohort","volume":"6","author":"Bohn","year":"2023","journal-title":"JAMA Netw. Open"},{"key":"ref17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"567","DOI":"10.1097\/CCM.0000000000000742","article-title":"Lactate measurements in sepsis-induced tissue hypoperfusion: results from the surviving Sepsis campaign database","volume":"43","author":"Casserly","year":"2015","journal-title":"Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1146690","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2023.1146690","article-title":"Progressive cognitive impairment after recovery from neuroinvasive and nonneuroinvasive Listeria monocytogenes infection","volume":"14","author":"Cassidy","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"pii: E703","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm9030703","article-title":"Sepsis-associated encephalopathy: from delirium to dementia?","volume":"9","author":"Chung","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Clin. Med."},{"key":"ref20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"204","DOI":"10.1002\/acn3.51711","article-title":"Neurofilament light chain levels predict encephalopathy and outcome in community-acquired pneumonia","volume":"10","author":"Chung","year":"2023","journal-title":"Ann. Clin. Transl. Neurol."},{"key":"ref21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.1177\/0891988717732152","article-title":"The cognitive reserve model in the development of delirium: the successful aging after elective surgery study","volume":"30","author":"Cizginer","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Geriatr. Psychiatry Neurol."},{"key":"ref22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1007\/s11910-021-01105-2","article-title":"Neurological complications of endocrine emergencies","volume":"21","author":"Cruz-Flores","year":"2021","journal-title":"Curr. Neurol. Neurosci. Rep."},{"key":"ref23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"644733","DOI":"10.3389\/fnagi.2021.644733","article-title":"Endothelial dysfunction and impaired neurovascular coupling responses precede cognitive impairment in a mouse model of geriatric Sepsis","volume":"13","author":"Csipo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Aging Neurosci."},{"key":"ref24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1393","DOI":"10.1007\/s13311-020-00981-9","article-title":"What animal models can tell us about long-term psychiatric symptoms in sepsis survivors: a systematic review","volume":"18","author":"Dal-Pizzol","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neurotherapeutics"},{"key":"ref25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"174","DOI":"10.1186\/s12974-022-02538-3","article-title":"Spatial and temporal variation of routine parameters: pitfalls in the cerebrospinal fluid analysis in central nervous system infections","volume":"19","author":"Djukic","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Neuroinflammation"},{"key":"ref1002","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1186\/s10020-023-00621-w","article-title":"Paediatric sepsis-associated encephalopathy (SAE): a comprehensive review","volume":"29","author":"Dumbuya","year":"2023","journal-title":"Mol Med."},{"key":"ref26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"262","DOI":"10.1186\/s13054-017-1850-7","article-title":"Translational evidence for two distinct patterns of neuroaxonal injury in sepsis: a longitudinal, prospective translational study","volume":"21","author":"Ehler","year":"2017","journal-title":"Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1007\/s00101-021-01067-7","article-title":"Which biomarkers for diagnosis and guidance of anti-infection treatment in sepsis?","volume":"71","author":"Ehler","year":"2022","journal-title":"Anaesthesist"},{"key":"ref28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e436","DOI":"10.1097\/CCM.0000000000004266","article-title":"Biomarker panel to differentiate brain injury from brain dysfunction in patients with sepsis-associated encephalopathy","volume":"48","author":"Ehler","year":"2020","journal-title":"Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0211184","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0211184","article-title":"The prognostic value of neurofilament levels in patients with sepsis-associated encephalopathy \u2013 a prospective, pilot observational study","volume":"14","author":"Ehler","year":"","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"ref30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neulet.2018.11.014","article-title":"Diagnostic value of NT-proCNP compared to NSE and S100B in cerebrospinal fluid and plasma of patients with sepsis-associated encephalopathy","volume":"692","author":"Ehler","year":"","journal-title":"Neurosci. Lett."},{"key":"ref31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1038\/s41390-018-0062-4","article-title":"Cerebral blood flow and serum neuron-specific enolase in early-onset neonatal sepsis","volume":"84","author":"El Shimy","year":"2018","journal-title":"Pediatr. Res."},{"key":"ref32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"925","DOI":"10.1007\/s40520-023-02388-w","article-title":"Biomarkers for risk stratification and antibiotic stewardship in elderly patients","volume":"35","author":"Falcone","year":"2023","journal-title":"Aging Clin. Exp. Res."},{"key":"ref33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"857","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01485232","article-title":"Untersuchungen mit J131-markiertem \u03b3-Globulin zur Frage der Abstammung der Liquoreiwei\u00dfk\u00f6rper","volume":"36","author":"Frick","year":"1958","journal-title":"Klin. Wochenschr."},{"key":"ref34","first-page":"7715","article-title":"Relationship between miR-29a levels in the peripheral blood and sepsis-related encephalopathy","volume":"13","author":"Guo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Am. J. Transl. Res."},{"key":"ref35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"674","DOI":"10.1186\/s13054-014-0674-y","article-title":"Clinical neurophysiological assessment of sepsis-associated brain dysfunction: a systematic review","volume":"18","author":"Hosokawa","year":"2014","journal-title":"Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1102126","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2023.1102126","article-title":"Diagnostic and prognostic value of serum S100B in sepsis-associated encephalopathy: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"14","author":"Hu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"S331","DOI":"10.1097\/CCM.0b013e3181b6ed58","article-title":"Sepsis-associated encephalopathy and its differential diagnosis","volume":"37","author":"Iacobone","year":"2009","journal-title":"Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1007\/978-94-017-7215-0_9","article-title":"Neuron-specific enolase as a biomarker: biochemical and clinical aspects","volume":"867","author":"Isgr\u00f2","year":"2015","journal-title":"Adv. Exp. Med. Biol."},{"key":"ref39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.1186\/s12873-021-00534-z","article-title":"Risk prediction of biomarkers for early multiple organ dysfunction in critically ill patients","volume":"21","author":"Ishikawa","year":"2021","journal-title":"BMC Emerg. Med."},{"key":"ref40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"851","DOI":"10.1097\/CCM.0000000000002368","article-title":"The confusion assessment method for the ICU-7 delirium severity scale: a novel delirium severity instrument for use in the ICU","volume":"45","author":"Khan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"313","DOI":"10.1186\/s13054-023-04603-6","article-title":"Different neuroprognostication thresholds of neuron-specific enolase in shockable and non-shockable out-of-hospital cardiac arrest: a prospective multicenter observational study in Korea (the KORHN-PRO registry)","volume":"27","author":"Kim","year":"2023","journal-title":"Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"R45","DOI":"10.1186\/cc10007","article-title":"Prognostic value of circulating amino-terminal pro-C-type natriuretic peptide in critically ill patients","volume":"15","author":"Koch","year":"2011","journal-title":"Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1080\/00365513.2021.2009021","article-title":"Development and validation of a simple correction method for the measurement of neuron-specific enolase in hemolyzed serum samples","volume":"82","author":"Lauwers","year":"2022","journal-title":"Scand. J. Clin. Lab. Invest."},{"key":"ref44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1155\/2015\/701480","article-title":"Procalcitonin levels in gram-positive, gram-negative, and fungal bloodstream infections","volume":"2015","author":"Leli","year":"2015","journal-title":"Dis. Markers"},{"key":"ref45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1848","DOI":"10.1111\/cns.14143","article-title":"MicroRNA-128 suppresses tau phosphorylation and reduces amyloid-beta accumulation by inhibiting the expression of GSK3\u03b2, APPBP2, and mTOR in Alzheimer's disease","volume":"29","author":"Li","year":"2023","journal-title":"CNS Neurosci. Ther."},{"key":"ref46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"917293","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.917293","article-title":"Immunosenescence: a critical factor associated with organ injury after sepsis","volume":"13","author":"Lu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e38222","DOI":"10.7759\/cureus.38222","article-title":"A case of metformin-associated lactic acidosis","volume":"15","author":"Mahmood","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"ref48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"R78","DOI":"10.1186\/cc10070","article-title":"Procalcitonin and C-reactive protein levels at admission as predictors of duration of acute brain dysfunction in critically ill patients","volume":"15","author":"McGrane","year":"2011","journal-title":"Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1111\/ejh.12036","article-title":"Morphologic, flow cytometric, functional, and molecular analyses of S100B positive lymphocytes, unique cytotoxic lymphocytes containing S100B protein","volume":"90","author":"Miki","year":"2013","journal-title":"Eur. J. Haematol."},{"key":"ref50","article-title":"Meningitis in older patients: how to diagnose and treat a deadly infection","volume":"52","author":"Miller","year":"1997","journal-title":"Geriatrics"},{"key":"ref51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1016\/S0166-2236(00)02024-5","article-title":"Neuronal injury in bacterial meningitis: mechanisms and implications for therapy","volume":"25","author":"Nau","year":"2002","journal-title":"Trends Neurosci."},{"key":"ref52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"372","DOI":"10.1007\/s12028-021-01433-8","article-title":"Posterior reversible encephalopathy in sepsis-associated encephalopathy: experience from a single center","volume":"36","author":"Orhun","year":"2022","journal-title":"Neurocrit. Care."},{"key":"ref53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.29399\/npa.23212","article-title":"Association between inflammatory markers and cognitive outcome in patients with acute brain dysfunction due to sepsis","volume":"56","author":"Orhun","year":"2019","journal-title":"Noro Psikiyatr. Ars."},{"key":"ref54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.2478\/jtim-2021-0007","article-title":"The use of electroencephalography in patients with sepsis: a review of the literature","volume":"9","author":"Pantzaris","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Transl. Int. Med."},{"key":"ref55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1212","DOI":"10.11817\/j.issn.1672-7347.2021.200905","article-title":"Clinical values of cerebral oxygen saturation monitoring in patients with septic shock","volume":"46","author":"Peng","year":"2021","journal-title":"Zhong Nan Da Xue Xue Bao Yi Xue Ban"},{"key":"ref56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1038\/nrn1032","article-title":"The impact of systemic infection on the progression of neurodegenerative disease","volume":"4","author":"Perry","year":"2003","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"554","DOI":"10.1097\/CCM.0000000000005313","article-title":"Risk of dementia and structural brain changes following nonneurological infections during 9-year follow-up","volume":"50","author":"Peters van Ton","year":"2022","journal-title":"Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2253-14-45","article-title":"Transcranial Doppler to assess sepsis-associated encephalopathy in critically ill patients","volume":"14","author":"Pierrakos","year":"2014","journal-title":"BMC Anesthesiol."},{"key":"ref59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1097\/MCC.0000000000001022","article-title":"Neurological complications of sepsis","volume":"29","author":"Piva","year":"2023","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1016\/s0733-8619(03)00060-4","article-title":"Neurologic manifestations of electrolyte disturbances","volume":"20","author":"Riggs","year":"2002","journal-title":"Neurol. Clin."},{"key":"ref61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1007\/s11910-018-0895-6","article-title":"Septic encephalopathy","volume":"18","author":"Robba","year":"2018","journal-title":"Curr. Neurol. Neurosci. Rep."},{"key":"ref62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1453","DOI":"10.1177\/0885066619828293","article-title":"Cerebral autoregulation-guided optimal blood pressure in sepsis-associated encephalopathy: a case series","volume":"35","author":"Rosenblatt","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Intensive Care Med."},{"key":"ref63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1067215","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2022.1067215","article-title":"S100b in acute ischemic stroke clots is a biomarker for post-thrombectomy intracranial hemorrhages","volume":"13","author":"Rossi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front. Neurol."},{"key":"ref64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"386","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2020.12.005","article-title":"What animal models can tell us about long-term cognitive dysfunction following sepsis: a systematic review","volume":"124","author":"Savi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev."},{"key":"ref65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"R181","DOI":"10.1186\/cc11665","article-title":"Impaired cerebrovascular autoregulation in patients with severe sepsis and sepsis-associated delirium","volume":"16","author":"Schramm","year":"2012","journal-title":"Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1186\/s12974-022-02464-4","article-title":"Sepsis-associated brain injury: underlying mechanisms and potential therapeutic strategies for acute and long-term cognitive impairments","volume":"19","author":"Sekino","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Neuroinflammation"},{"key":"ref67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1186\/1742-2094-5-38","article-title":"Sepsis causes neuroinflammation and concomitant decrease of cerebral metabolism","volume":"5","author":"Semmler","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Neuroinflammation"},{"key":"ref68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e62","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0000000000012967","article-title":"Serum neuron-specific enolase thresholds for predicting postcardiac arrest outcome: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"98","author":"Sharma","year":"2022","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1007\/s00415-016-8328-4","article-title":"Factors associated with fatal outcome in posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome: a retrospective analysis of the Berlin PRES study","volume":"264","author":"Siebert","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Neurol."},{"key":"ref70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/10408363.2019.1664391","article-title":"Managing hemolyzed samples in clinical laboratories","volume":"57","author":"Simundic","year":"2020","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Clin. Lab. Sci."},{"key":"ref71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1557","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(21)00144-4","article-title":"Hospital-treated infectious diseases and the risk of dementia: a large, multicohort, observational study with a replication cohort","volume":"21","author":"Sipil\u00e4","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1075","DOI":"10.1007\/s00134-017-4807-z","article-title":"Potentially modifiable factors contributing to sepsis-associated encephalopathy","volume":"43","author":"Sonneville","year":"2017","journal-title":"Intensive Care Med."},{"key":"ref73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2202-8-2","article-title":"Evidence for a wide extra-astrocytic distribution of S100B in human brain","volume":"8","author":"Steiner","year":"2007","journal-title":"BMC Neurosci."},{"key":"ref74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1233","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbi.2011.03.015","article-title":"Human CD8(+) T cells and NK cells express and secrete S100B upon stimulation","volume":"25","author":"Steiner","year":"2011","journal-title":"Brain Behav. Immun."},{"key":"ref75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6765","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms22136765","article-title":"Multifaceted regulation of MicroRNA biogenesis: essential roles and functional integration in neuronal and glial development","volume":"22","author":"Suster","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Mol. Sci."},{"key":"ref76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"952","DOI":"10.1007\/s11307-018-1201-3","article-title":"Evaluation of brain nuclear medicine imaging tracers in a murine model of sepsis-associated encephalopathy","volume":"20","author":"Sz\u00f6ll\u0151si","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mol. Imaging Biol."},{"key":"ref77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1126874","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2023.1126874","article-title":"Early immune system alterations in patients with septic shock","volume":"14","author":"Tang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1080\/14787210.2020.1812384","article-title":"Sepsis-associated encephalopathy and septic encephalitis: an update","volume":"19","author":"Tauber","year":"2021","journal-title":"Expert Rev. Anti-Infect. Ther."},{"key":"ref79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1080\/14787210.2017.1265448","article-title":"Septic encephalopathy and septic encephalitis","volume":"15","author":"Tauber","year":"2017","journal-title":"Expert Rev. Anti-Infect. Ther."},{"key":"ref80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"722","DOI":"10.1007\/s12035-016-9708-6","article-title":"Biomarkers of delirium in a low-risk community-acquired pneumonia-induced sepsis","volume":"54","author":"Tomasi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mol. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref81","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"635486","DOI":"10.3389\/fncel.2021.635486","article-title":"The role of inflammation and infection in age-related neurodegenerative diseases: lessons from bacterial meningitis applied to Alzheimer disease and age-related macular degeneration","volume":"15","author":"Too","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Cell. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"222","DOI":"10.1038\/nrendo.2016.15","article-title":"Diabetic emergencies \u2013 ketoacidosis, hyperglycaemic hyperosmolar state and hypoglycaemia","volume":"12","author":"Umpierrez","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref83","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"R297","DOI":"10.1186\/cc10598","article-title":"Biomarkers associated with delirium in critically ill patients and their relation with long-term subjective cognitive dysfunction; indications for different pathways governing delirium in inflamed and noninflamed patients","volume":"15","author":"van den Boogaard","year":"2011","journal-title":"Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref84","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.1097\/SHK.0000000000001473","article-title":"Plasma miR-370-3P as a biomarker of sepsis-associated encephalopathy, the transcriptomic profiling analysis of microRNA-arrays from mouse brains","volume":"54","author":"Visitchanakun","year":"2020","journal-title":"Shock"},{"key":"ref85","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"350","DOI":"10.1007\/s003910070031","article-title":"Infection in the elderly--what is different?","volume":"33","author":"Werner","year":"2000","journal-title":"Z. Gerontol. Geriatr."},{"key":"ref86","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1093\/jnen\/nlx112","article-title":"PRES: review of histological features","volume":"77","author":"Willard","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Neuropathol. Exp. Neurol."},{"key":"ref87","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"172","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcrc.2019.04.018","article-title":"Serum glial fibrillary acidic protein and ubiquitin C-terminal hydrolase-L1 for diagnosis of sepsis-associated encephalopathy and outcome prognostication","volume":"52","author":"Wu","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref88","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"152290","DOI":"10.1016\/j.imbio.2022.152290","article-title":"A combined ratio change of inflammatory biomarkers at 72 h could predict the severity and prognosis of sepsis from pulmonary infections","volume":"227","author":"Xiao","year":"2022","journal-title":"Immunobiology"},{"key":"ref89","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1137","DOI":"10.11817\/j.issn.1672-7347.2019.190180","article-title":"Expression level of glial fibrillary acidic protein and its clinical significance in patients with sepsis-associated encephalopathy","volume":"44","author":"Yan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Zhong Nan Da Xue Xue Bao Yi Xue Ban"},{"key":"ref90","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"929316","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.929316","article-title":"Central role of microglia in sepsis-associated encephalopathy: from mechanism to therapy","volume":"13","author":"Yan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref91","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1263","DOI":"10.1007\/s11064-014-1308-0","article-title":"Serum S100B is a better biomarker than neuron-specific enolase for sepsis-associated encephalopathy and determining its prognosis: a prospective and observational study","volume":"39","author":"Yao","year":"2014","journal-title":"Neurochem. Res."},{"key":"ref92","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1125888","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2023.1125888","article-title":"A summary of the current diagnostic methods for, and exploration of the value of microRNAs as biomarkers in, sepsis-associated encephalopathy","volume":"17","author":"Yuechen","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref93","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e1229","DOI":"10.1002\/hsr2.1229","article-title":"Combining C-reactive protein and quick sequential organ failure assessment (qSOFA) to improve prognostic accuracy for sepsis and mortality in adult inpatients: a systematic review","volume":"6","author":"Zacharakis","year":"2023","journal-title":"Health Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref94","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1876174","DOI":"10.1155\/2019\/1876174","article-title":"Association between elevated serum Tau protein level and sepsis-associated encephalopathy in patients with severe sepsis","volume":"2019","author":"Zhao","year":"2019","journal-title":"Can. J. Infect. Dis. Med. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref95","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.1007\/s40273-022-01224-9","article-title":"Impact of influenza and influenza-like illness on work productivity outcomes: a systematic literature review","volume":"41","author":"Zumofen","year":"2023","journal-title":"PharmacoEconomics"}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fncel.2023.1238149\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,7]],"date-time":"2023-09-07T09:53:43Z","timestamp":1694080423000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fncel.2023.1238149\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,7]]},"references-count":96,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fncel.2023.1238149"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fncel.2023.1238149","relation":{},"ISSN":["1662-5102"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1662-5102","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,7]]},"article-number":"1238149"}}