{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,24]],"date-time":"2026-09-24T12:11:25Z","timestamp":1790251885530,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":148,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,26]],"date-time":"2021-11-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1637884800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000038","name":"Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000038","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000024","name":"Canadian Institutes of Health Research","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000024","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001804","name":"Canada Research Chairs","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001804","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Neural Circuits"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Visual perception occurs when a set of physical signals emanating from the environment enter the visual system and the brain interprets such signals as a percept. Visual working memory occurs when the brain produces and maintains a mental representation of a percept while the physical signals corresponding to that percept are not available. Early studies in humans and non-human primates demonstrated that lesions of the prefrontal cortex impair performance during visual working memory tasks but not during perceptual tasks. These studies attributed a fundamental role in working memory and a lesser role in visual perception to the prefrontal cortex. Indeed, single cell recording studies have found that neurons in the lateral prefrontal cortex of macaques encode working memory representations via persistent firing, validating the results of lesion studies. However, other studies have reported that neurons in some areas of the parietal and temporal lobe\u2014classically associated with visual perception\u2014similarly encode working memory representations via persistent firing. This prompted a line of enquiry about the role of the prefrontal and other associative cortices in working memory and perception. Here, we review evidence from single neuron studies in macaque monkeys examining working memory representations across different areas of the visual hierarchy and link them to studies examining the role of the same areas in visual perception. We conclude that neurons in early visual areas of both ventral (V1-V2-V4) and dorsal (V1-V3-MT) visual pathways of macaques mainly encode perceptual signals. On the other hand, areas downstream from V4 and MT contain subpopulations of neurons that encode both perceptual and\/or working memory signals. Differences in cortical architecture (neuronal types, layer composition, and synaptic density and distribution) may be linked to the differential encoding of perceptual and working memory signals between early visual areas and higher association areas.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fncir.2021.764177","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,1]],"date-time":"2021-12-01T07:38:36Z","timestamp":1638344316000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":33,"title":["Neural Substrates of Visual Perception and Working Memory: Two Sides of the Same Coin or Two Different Coins?"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Megan","family":"Roussy","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Diego","family":"Mendoza-Halliday","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Julio C.","family":"Martinez-Trujillo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1106","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.1984.52.6.1106","article-title":"Direction and orientation selectivity of neurons in visual area MT of the macaque","volume":"52","author":"Albright","year":"1984","journal-title":"J. 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