{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,18]],"date-time":"2026-08-18T14:50:01Z","timestamp":1787064601136,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":23,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,3]],"date-time":"2022-03-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1646265600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Neurol."],"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Multiple acyl-CoA dehydrogenase deficiency (MADD) is an autosomal recessive disorder of fatty acid oxidation due to deficiency of the mitochondrial electron transfer chain. The late-onset form is characterized by exercise intolerance, muscle weakness, and lipid storage in myofibers. Most MADD patients greatly benefit from riboflavin supplementation.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Patients and methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      A retrospective study was conducted on patients with a diagnosis of vacuolar myopathy with lipid storage followed in our neuromuscular unit in the last 20 years. We selected 10 unrelated patients with the diagnosis of MADD according to clinical, morphological, and biochemical aspects. Clinical features, blood tests including serum acylcarnitines, EMG, and ENG were revised. Muscle biopsy was performed in all, and one individual underwent also a sural nerve biopsy. Gene sequencing of\n                      <jats:italic>ETFA, ETFB<\/jats:italic>\n                      , and\n                      <jats:italic>ETFDH<\/jats:italic>\n                      was performed as a first-tier genetic analysis followed by next-generation sequencing of an hyperCKemia gene panel in patients with undefined genotypes.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Clinical evaluation at onset in all our patients showed fatigue and muscle weakness; four patients showed difficulties in chewing, three patients complained of dysphagia, two patients had a dropped head, and a patient had an unexpected ataxia with numbness and dysesthesia. Laboratory blood tests revealed a variable increase in serum CK (266\u20136,500) and LDH levels (500\u20132,000). Plasma acylcarnitine profile evidenced increased levels of different chains intermediates. EMG was either normal or showed myogenic or neurogenic patterns. NCS demonstrated sensory neuropathy in two patients. Muscle biopsies showed a vacuolar myopathy with a variable increase in lipid content. Nerve biopsy evidenced an axonal degeneration with the loss of myelinated fibers.\n                      <jats:italic>ETFDH<\/jats:italic>\n                      genetic analysis identifies 14 pathogenic variants. Patients were treated with high doses of riboflavin (400 mg\/die). All of them showed a rapid muscle strength improvement and normalization of abnormal values in laboratory tests. Neuropathic symptoms did not improve.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Our data confirmed that clinical features in MADD patients are extremely variable in terms of disease onset and symptoms making diagnosis difficult. Laboratory investigations, such as serum acylcarnitine profile and muscle biopsy evaluation, may strongly address to a correct diagnosis. The favorable response to riboflavin supplementation strengthens the importance of an early diagnosis of these disorders among the spectrum of metabolic myopathies.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2022.815523","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,3]],"date-time":"2022-03-03T01:36:22Z","timestamp":1646271382000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":28,"title":["Diagnostic Challenges in Late Onset Multiple Acyl-CoA Dehydrogenase Deficiency: Clinical, Morphological, and Genetic 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