{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,21]],"date-time":"2026-10-21T15:28:00Z","timestamp":1792596480536,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":78,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,29]],"date-time":"2025-08-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1756425600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Neurol."],"abstract":"<jats:sec><jats:title>Background<\/jats:title><jats:p>Functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS) has been used to detect changes in haemodynamic response in patients with neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer\u2019s disease (AD) and mild cognitive impairment (MCI). We aimed to evaluate the efficacy of fNIRS in identifying early dementia-related changes and distinguishing between MCI and AD.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title><jats:p>A comprehensive literature search was conducted using PubMed and Web of Science, focusing on studies that employed fNIRS to measure cerebral hemodynamics in MCI and AD patients. The search included articles published up to February 2024. Studies were selected based on predefined criteria, including the use of fNIRS, inclusion of MCI or AD patients, and publication in English. Data extraction focused on study design, fNIRS device specifications, experimental paradigms, and diagnostic criteria.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Results<\/jats:title><jats:p>A total of 58 studies were included in the review. Of these, 4 studies employed both resting-state and task-based paradigms, 11 studies focused on resting-state paradigms, and 43 studies utilized task-based paradigms. Resting-state studies revealed reduced brain activation in the frontal, temporal, and parietal lobes in AD and MCI patients, along with significant reductions in tissue oxygenation index (TOI) and functional connectivity (FC). Task-based studies demonstrated diminished activation across multiple brain regions during cognitive tasks, with reduced FC intensity and signal complexity in AD and MCI patients. Machine learning models applied to fNIRS data showed high accuracy in classifying MCI and AD, with some models achieving accuracy rates of up to 90%.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title><jats:p>fNIRS is a promising tool for the diagnosis and monitoring of MCI and AD, and further research is needed to establish its full potential.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2025.1578375","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,29]],"date-time":"2025-08-29T04:11:00Z","timestamp":1756440660000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Functional near-infrared spectroscopy for identifying mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer\u2019s disease: a systematic review"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Haoyu","family":"Li","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xi","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Liang","family":"Gong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1598","DOI":"10.1002\/alz.13016","article-title":"2023 Alzheimer\u2019s disease facts and figures","volume":"19","year":"2023","journal-title":"Alzheimers Dement"},{"key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"126","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0000000000004826","article-title":"Practice guideline update summary: mild cognitive impairment [RETIRED]: Report of the Guideline Development, Dissemination, and Implementation Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology","volume":"90","author":"Petersen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"753","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cger.2013.07.003","article-title":"Classification and epidemiology of MCI","volume":"29","author":"Roberts","year":"2013","journal-title":"Clin Geriatr Med"},{"key":"ref4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"592","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaneurol.2022.0676","article-title":"Divergent cortical tau positron emission tomography patterns among patients with preclinical Alzheimer disease","volume":"79","author":"Young","year":"2022","journal-title":"JAMA Neurol"},{"key":"ref5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1818","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0b013e31829430ba","article-title":"Reversion from mild cognitive impairment to normal or near-normal cognition: risk factors and prognosis","volume":"80","author":"Rosenberg","year":"2013","journal-title":"Neurology (Philadelphia)"},{"key":"ref6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101992","DOI":"10.1016\/j.arr.2023.101992","article-title":"A promising tool to explore functional impairment in neurodegeneration: a systematic review of near-infrared spectroscopy in dementia","volume":"90","author":"Butters","year":"2023","journal-title":"Ageing Res Rev"},{"key":"ref7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"023514","DOI":"10.1117\/1.NPh.10.2.023514","article-title":"Illuminating neurodegeneration: a future perspective on near-infrared spectroscopy in dementia research","volume":"10","author":"Srinivasan","year":"2023","journal-title":"Neurophotonics (United States)"},{"key":"ref8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"176","DOI":"10.1017\/S1092852912000636","article-title":"The diagnosis and evaluation of dementia and mild cognitive impairment with emphasis on SPECT perfusion neuroimaging","volume":"17","author":"Henderson","year":"2012","journal-title":"CNS Spectr"},{"key":"ref9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"E413","DOI":"10.1097\/RLU.0000000000000547","article-title":"Brain PET in the diagnosis of Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"39","author":"Marcus","year":"2014","journal-title":"Clin Nucl Med"},{"key":"ref10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.2174\/1381612825666191014164511","article-title":"The potential role of functional near-infrared spectroscopy as clinical biomarkers in schizophrenia","volume":"26","author":"Chou","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr Pharm Des"},{"key":"ref11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"498","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2013.05.126","article-title":"Neuroimaging-aided differential diagnosis of the depressive state","volume":"85","author":"Takizawa","year":"2014","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"ref12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1097\/JGP.0b013e3180cc1fbc","article-title":"Reduced prefrontal oxygenation in Alzheimer disease during verbal fluency tasks","volume":"16","author":"Herrmann","year":"2008","journal-title":"Am J Geriatr Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"904108","DOI":"10.3389\/fnagi.2022.904108","article-title":"Identifying cognitive impairment in elderly using coupling functions between cerebral oxyhemoglobin and arterial blood pressure","volume":"14","author":"Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front Aging Neurosci"},{"key":"ref14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"162","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jalz.2013.04.507","article-title":"Global brain hypoperfusion and oxygenation in amnestic mild cognitive impairment","volume":"10","author":"Liu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Alzheimers Dement"},{"key":"ref15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.3233\/JAD-161004","article-title":"Comparison of model-based indices of cerebral autoregulation and vasomotor reactivity using transcranial Doppler versus near-infrared spectroscopy in patients with amnestic mild cognitive impairment","volume":"56","author":"Marmarelis","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Alzheimers Dis"},{"key":"ref16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"765","DOI":"10.3233\/JAD-132018","article-title":"Dynamic cerebral autoregulation and tissue oxygenation in amnestic mild cognitive impairment","volume":"41","author":"Tarumi","year":"2014","journal-title":"J Alzheimer's Dis"},{"key":"ref17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"851","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinph.2012.11.013","article-title":"Tissue oxygen saturation and pulsatility index as markers for amnestic mild cognitive impairment: NIRS and TCD study","volume":"124","author":"Viola","year":"2013","journal-title":"Clin Neurophysiol"},{"key":"ref18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"438","DOI":"10.1097\/PHM.0000000000001118","article-title":"Effective connectivity in subjects with mild cognitive impairment as assessed using functional near-infrared spectroscopy","volume":"98","author":"Bu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Am J Phys Med Rehabil"},{"key":"ref19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.3390\/biomedicines9040337","article-title":"Evidence of neurovascular un-coupling in mild Alzheimer\u2019s disease through multimodal EEG-fNIRS and multivariate analysis of resting-state data","volume":"9","author":"Chiarelli","year":"2021","journal-title":"Biomedicines"},{"key":"ref20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"537","DOI":"10.1002\/mrm.1910340409","article-title":"Functional connectivity in the motor cortex of resting human brain using echo-planar MRI","volume":"34","author":"Biswal","year":"1995","journal-title":"Magn Reson Med"},{"key":"ref21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e201800298","DOI":"10.1002\/jbio.201800298","article-title":"Investigation of brain functional connectivity in patients with mild cognitive impairment: a functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) study","volume":"12","author":"Nguyen","year":"2019","journal-title":"J Biophotonics"},{"key":"ref22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"025010","DOI":"10.1117\/1.NPh.6.2.025010","article-title":"Abnormal dynamic functional connectivity and brain states in Alzheimer\u2019s diseases: functional near-infrared spectroscopy study","volume":"6","author":"Niu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Neurophotonics"},{"key":"ref23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"045010","DOI":"10.1117\/1.NPh.9.4.045010","article-title":"Early screening model for mild cognitive impairment based on resting-state functional connectivity: a functional near-infrared spectroscopy study","volume":"9","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Neurophotonics"},{"key":"ref24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7845104","DOI":"10.1155\/2019\/7845104","article-title":"Neural compensatory response during complex cognitive function tasks in mild cognitive impairment: a near-infrared spectroscopy study","volume":"2019","author":"Yoon","year":"2019","journal-title":"Neural Plast"},{"key":"ref25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1061668","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2022.1061668","article-title":"Screening for Alzheimer\u2019s disease using prefrontal resting-state functional near-infrared spectroscopy","volume":"16","author":"Keles","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front Hum Neurosci"},{"key":"ref26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"810125","DOI":"10.3389\/fnagi.2022.810125","article-title":"Deep learning-based multilevel classification of Alzheimer\u2019s disease using non-invasive functional near-infrared spectroscopy","volume":"14","author":"Ho","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front Aging Neurosci"},{"key":"ref27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1007\/s11682-018-9827-y","article-title":"Reduced spontaneous low frequency oscillations as measured with functional near-infrared spectroscopy in mild cognitive impairment","volume":"13","author":"Zeller","year":"2019","journal-title":"Brain Imaging Behav"},{"key":"ref28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1916","DOI":"10.1364\/BOE.9.001916","article-title":"Decreased resting-state brain signal complexity in patients with mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer\u2019s disease: a multiscale entropy analysis","volume":"9","author":"Li","year":"2018","journal-title":"Biomed Opt Express"},{"key":"ref29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bandc.2005.12.012","article-title":"A quantitative near-infrared spectroscopy study: a decrease in cerebral hemoglobin oxygenation in Alzheimer\u2019s disease and mild cognitive impairment","volume":"61","author":"Arai","year":"2006","journal-title":"Brain Cogn"},{"key":"ref30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"266","DOI":"10.1097\/WAD.0000000000000475","article-title":"Assessment of functional near-infrared spectroscopy by comparing prefrontal cortex activity: a cognitive impairment screening tool","volume":"36","author":"Baik","year":"2022","journal-title":"Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord"},{"key":"ref31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e046879","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2020-046879","article-title":"Multimodal measurement approach to identify individuals with mild cognitive impairment: study protocol for a cross-sectional trial","volume":"11","author":"Gr\u00e4ssler","year":"2021","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"ref32","author":"Kang","year":"2021"},{"key":"ref33","author":"Kim","year":""},{"key":"ref34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci12121636","article-title":"Prefrontal cerebral oxygenated hemoglobin concentration during the category fluency and finger-tapping tasks in adults with and without mild cognitive impairment: a near-infrared spectroscopy study","volume":"12","author":"Takahashi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Brain Sci"},{"key":"ref35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1163","DOI":"10.3233\/JAD-220691","article-title":"Decreased hemodynamic responses in left parietal lobule and left inferior parietal lobule in older adults with mild cognitive impairment: a near-infrared spectroscopy study","volume":"90","author":"Tian","year":"2022","journal-title":"J Alzheimer's Dis"},{"key":"ref36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2019.00317","article-title":"Evaluation of neural degeneration biomarkers in the prefrontal cortex for early identification of patients with mild cognitive impairment: an fNIRS study","volume":"13","author":"Yang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front Hum Neurosci"},{"key":"ref37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.3389\/fnagi.2020.00141","article-title":"Detection of mild cognitive impairment using convolutional neural network: temporal-feature maps of functional near-infrared spectroscopy","volume":"12","author":"Yang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front Aging Neurosci"},{"key":"ref38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.3389\/fnagi.2017.00287","article-title":"Visualizing hyperactivation in neurodegeneration based on prefrontal oxygenation: a comparative study of mild Alzheimer\u2019s disease, mild cognitive impairment, and healthy controls","volume":"9","author":"Yap","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front Aging Neurosci"},{"key":"ref39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1145","DOI":"10.2174\/1567205018666210212154941","article-title":"Diagnosis of mild cognitive impairment using cognitive tasks: a functional near-infrared spectroscopy study","volume":"17","author":"Yoo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr Alzheimer Res"},{"key":"ref40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.1016\/s0006-8993(97)00122-4","article-title":"Decrease in parietal cerebral hemoglobin oxygenation during performance of a verbal fluency task in patients with Alzheimer\u2019s disease monitored by means of near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS)--correlation with simultaneous rCBF-PET measurements","volume":"755","author":"Hock","year":"1997","journal-title":"Brain Res"},{"key":"ref41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1186\/1744-9081-10-8","article-title":"Comparison of alterations in cerebral hemoglobin oxygenation in late life depression and Alzheimer\u2019s disease as assessed by near-infrared spectroscopy","volume":"10","author":"Kito","year":"2014","journal-title":"Behav Brain Funct"},{"key":"ref42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1080\/15622970600960132","article-title":"Brain activation in elderly people with and without dementia: influences of gender and medication","volume":"8","author":"Richter","year":"2007","journal-title":"World J Biol Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pscychresns.2018.02.003","article-title":"Decreased hemodynamic response in inferior frontotemporal regions in elderly with mild cognitive impairment","volume":"274","author":"Katzorke","year":"2018","journal-title":"Psychiatry Res Neuroimaging"},{"key":"ref44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1186\/s13195-016-0224-8","article-title":"Brain activation in frontotemporal and Alzheimer\u2019s dementia: a functional near-infrared spectroscopy study","volume":"8","author":"Metzger","year":"2016","journal-title":"Alzheimers Res Ther"},{"key":"ref45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0285013","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0285013","article-title":"Correlation between cerebral hemodynamic functional near-infrared spectroscopy and positron emission tomography for assessing mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer\u2019s disease: an exploratory study","volume":"18","author":"Yoon","year":"2023","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"ref46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.3389\/fnagi.2016.00059","article-title":"Altered frontal lateralization underlies the category fluency deficits in older adults with mild cognitive impairment: a near-infrared spectroscopy study","volume":"8","author":"Yeung","year":"2016","journal-title":"Front Aging Neurosci"},{"key":"ref47","author":"Tang","year":"2018"},{"key":"ref48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"238","DOI":"10.1111\/psyg.12226","article-title":"Evaluation of changes in oxyhemoglobin during Shiritori task in elderly subjects including those with Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"17","author":"Kato","year":"2017","journal-title":"Psychogeriatrics"},{"key":"ref49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"417","DOI":"10.1016\/S1364-6613(00)01538-2","article-title":"The episodic buffer: a new component of working memory?","volume":"4","author":"Baddeley","year":"2000","journal-title":"Trends Cogn Sci"},{"key":"ref50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"108618","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneumeth.2020.108618","article-title":"An EEG-fNIRS hybridization technique in the four-class classification of Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"336","author":"Cicalese","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Neurosci Methods"},{"key":"ref51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7199","DOI":"10.1364\/BOE.438926","article-title":"Refined prefrontal working memory network as a neuromarker for Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"12","author":"Kim","year":"2021","journal-title":"Biomed Opt Express"},{"key":"ref52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101622","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nicl.2018.101622","article-title":"Dynamic cortical connectivity alterations associated with Alzheimer\u2019s disease: an EEG and fNIRS integration study","volume":"21","author":"Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"Neuroimage Clin"},{"key":"ref53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"366","DOI":"10.3389\/fnagi.2018.00366","article-title":"Early detection of Alzheimer\u2019s disease using non-invasive near-infrared spectroscopy","volume":"10","author":"Li","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front Aging Neurosci"},{"key":"ref54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1109\/TNSRE.2019.2956464","article-title":"Functional network alterations in patients with amnestic mild cognitive impairment characterized using functional near-infrared spectroscopy","volume":"28","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans Neural Syst Rehabil Eng"},{"key":"ref55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1137283","DOI":"10.3389\/fnagi.2023.1137283","article-title":"Can the fNIRS-derived neural biomarker better discriminate mild cognitive impairment than a neuropsychological screening test?","volume":"15","author":"Park","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front Aging Neurosci"},{"key":"ref56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"583","DOI":"10.1002\/gps.4363","article-title":"Reduced prefrontal oxygenation in mild cognitive impairment during memory retrieval","volume":"31","author":"Uemura","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int J Geriatr Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"863","DOI":"10.3233\/JAD-220815","article-title":"Brain activation during working memory task in amnestic mild cognitive impairment patients and its association with memory and attention","volume":"91","author":"Liu","year":"2023","journal-title":"J Alzheimer's Dis"},{"key":"ref58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1725","DOI":"10.1364\/BOE.382197","article-title":"Prefrontal functional connectivity analysis of cognitive decline for early diagnosis of mild cognitive impairment: a functional near-infrared spectroscopy study","volume":"11","author":"Yu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biomed Opt Express"},{"key":"ref59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1111\/cns.12046","article-title":"Reduced frontal activation during a working memory task in mild cognitive impairment: a non-invasive near-infrared spectroscopy study","volume":"19","author":"Niu","year":"2013","journal-title":"CNS Neurosci Ther"},{"key":"ref60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pscychresns.2016.12.013","article-title":"Frontal activity during a verbal emotional working memory task in patients with Alzheimer\u2019s disease: a functional near-infrared spectroscopy study","volume":"261","author":"Ate\u015f","year":"2017","journal-title":"Psychiatry Res Neuroimaging"},{"key":"ref61","author":"Yoo","year":"2019"},{"key":"ref62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1109\/TNSRE.2019.2956459","article-title":"Assessing neural compensation with visuospatial working memory load using near-infrared imaging","volume":"28","author":"Ung","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans Neural Syst Rehabil Eng"},{"key":"ref63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.3390\/e21010026","article-title":"Complexity of frontal cortex fNIRS can support Alzheimer disease diagnosis in memory and visuo-spatial tests","volume":"21","author":"Perpetuini","year":"2019","journal-title":"Entropy (Basel, Switzerland)"},{"key":"ref64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"011010","DOI":"10.1117\/1.NPh.5.1.011010","article-title":"Study of memory deficit in Alzheimer\u2019s disease by means of complexity analysis of fNIRS signal","volume":"5","author":"Perpetuini","year":"2018","journal-title":"Neurophotonics"},{"key":"ref65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"433","DOI":"10.1097\/JGP.0b013e3181c65821","article-title":"Altered parietal brain oxygenation in Alzheimer\u2019s disease as assessed with near-infrared spectroscopy","volume":"18","author":"Zeller","year":"2010","journal-title":"Am J Geriatr Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpsychires.2021.12.021","article-title":"Reduced parietal activation in participants with mild cognitive impairments during visual-spatial processing measured with functional near-infrared spectroscopy","volume":"146","author":"Haberstumpf","year":"2022","journal-title":"J Psychiatr Res"},{"key":"ref67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1186\/s13195-022-00978-w","article-title":"Novel diagnostic tools for identifying cognitive impairment using olfactory-stimulated functional near-infrared spectroscopy: patient-level, single-group, diagnostic trial","volume":"14","author":"Kim","year":"2022","journal-title":"Alzheimer's Res Ther"},{"key":"ref68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7734","DOI":"10.26355\/eurrev_202211_30122","article-title":"Classification of Alzheimer\u2019s disease stage using machine learning for left and right oxygenation difference signals in the prefrontal cortex: a patient-level, single-group, diagnostic interventional trial","volume":"26","author":"Kim","year":"2022","journal-title":"Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci"},{"key":"ref69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6824","DOI":"10.26355\/eurrev_202307_33153","article-title":"Feature extraction of time series data on functional near-infrared spectroscopy and comparison of deep learning performance for classifying patients with Alzheimer\u2019s-related mild cognitive impairment: a post-hoc analysis of a diagnostic interventional trial","volume":"27","author":"Kim","year":"2023","journal-title":"Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci"},{"key":"ref70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fnagi.2022.799732","article-title":"Assessment of brain function in patients with cognitive impairment based on fNIRS and gait analysis","volume":"14","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front Aging Neurosci"},{"key":"ref71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"144","DOI":"10.1186\/s12877-024-04772-1","article-title":"Brain activation during standing balance control in dual-task paradigm and its correlation among older adults with mild cognitive impairment: a fNIRS study","volume":"24","author":"Xu","year":"2024","journal-title":"BMC Geriatr"},{"key":"ref72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"116541","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2020.116541","article-title":"Portable, field-based neuroimaging using high-density diffuse optical tomography","volume":"215","author":"Fishell","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neuro Image"},{"key":"ref73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"imag_a_00430","DOI":"10.1162\/imag_a_00430","article-title":"Challenges in measuring individual differences of brain function","volume":"3","author":"Xu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Imaging Neurosci (Camb)"},{"key":"ref74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"768","DOI":"10.1038\/s41562-019-0655-x","article-title":"Harnessing reliability for neuroscience research","volume":"3","author":"Zuo","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat Hum Behav"},{"key":"ref75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2014.05.009","article-title":"Test-retest reliabilities of resting-state FMRI measurements in human brain functional connectomics: a systems neuroscience perspective","volume":"45","author":"Zuo","year":"2014","journal-title":"Neurosci Biobehav Rev"},{"key":"ref76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"278","DOI":"10.1016\/j.plrev.2025.02.001","article-title":"Dark brain energy: toward an integrative model of spontaneous slow oscillations","volume":"52","author":"Gong","year":"2025","journal-title":"Phys Life Rev"},{"key":"ref77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e1003583","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.1003583","article-title":"The PRISMA 2020 Statement: An Updated Guideline for Reporting Systematic Reviews","volume":"18","author":"Page","year":"2021","journal-title":"PLoS Medicine"},{"key":"ref78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1109\/TNSRE.2023.3236007","article-title":"Comparing multi-dimensional fNIRS features using Bayesian optimization-based neural networks for Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI) detection","author":"Zhang","year":"2023"}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Neurology"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fneur.2025.1578375\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,29]],"date-time":"2025-08-29T04:11:01Z","timestamp":1756440661000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fneur.2025.1578375\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,29]]},"references-count":78,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fneur.2025.1578375"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fneur.2025.1578375","relation":{},"ISSN":["1664-2295"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1664-2295","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,29]]},"article-number":"1578375"}}