{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,17]],"date-time":"2025-09-17T05:46:43Z","timestamp":1758088003392,"version":"3.44.0"},"reference-count":88,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,16]],"date-time":"2025-09-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1757980800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Neurol."],"abstract":"<jats:sec><jats:title>Objective<\/jats:title><jats:p>Review the evidence from space travel crews, early and recent experiments in particle accelerators, and observations in patients undergoing heavy ions treatments for tumors of the eye or skull that charged particles act on the visual system triggering the perception of <jats:italic>phosphenes<\/jats:italic>.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Results<\/jats:title><jats:p>The visual effects of charged particles are multi-modal in origin, act differently on the retina photoreceptors and neurons, and indicate a peculiar sensitivity to charged particles of the visual system. Acute toxicology in heavy ion treatment has been documented and should be differentiated by quasi-physiological actions.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Significance<\/jats:title><jats:p>The potential relevance of <jats:italic>phosphenes<\/jats:italic> as indicative of functional impairment stands as a possible variable in hadron-therapy, the proper monitoring of which may contribute to optimizing the treatment procedures and in the prediction of outcome.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2025.1621659","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,16]],"date-time":"2025-09-16T04:14:09Z","timestamp":1757996049000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Phosphenes and the effects of charged particles on the visual system"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Simone","family":"Carozzo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Walter G.","family":"Sannita","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lssr.2016.06.002","article-title":"Mechanisms of phosphene generation in ocular proton therapy as related to space radiation exposure","volume":"10","author":"Chuard","year":"2016","journal-title":"Life Sci Space Res (Amst)"},{"key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"075010","DOI":"10.1088\/1367-2630\/10\/7\/075010","article-title":"Heavy ions light flashes and brain functions: recent observations at accelerators and in spaceflight","volume":"10","author":"Narici","year":"2008","journal-title":"New J Phys"},{"key":"ref3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1016\/j.zemedi.2023.06.004","article-title":"Light flashes and other sensory illusions perceived in space travel and on ground, including proton and heavy ion therapies","volume":"34","author":"Narici","year":"2024","journal-title":"Z Med Phys"},{"key":"ref4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"936","DOI":"10.1007\/s00066-023-02095-5","article-title":"Abnormal visual and olfactory sensations during radiation therapy: a prospective study","volume":"199","author":"Mai","year":"2023","journal-title":"Strahlenther Onkol"},{"key":"ref5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2159","DOI":"10.1016\/j.visres.2005.12.002","article-title":"Positive visual phenomena in space: A scientific case and a safety issue in space travel","volume":"46","author":"Sannita","year":"2006","journal-title":"Vis Res"},{"key":"ref6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"449","DOI":"10.3357\/ASEM.2016.77.4.449","article-title":"Phosphenes in low earth orbit: survey responses from 59 astronauts","volume":"77","author":"Fuglesang","year":"2006","journal-title":"Aviat Space Environ Med"},{"key":"ref7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"775","DOI":"10.1007\/s10792-019-01212-7","article-title":"From international ophthalmology to space ophthalmology: the threats to vision on the way to Moon and Mars colonization","volume":"40","author":"Aleci","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int Ophthalmol"},{"key":"ref8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1038\/239209a0","article-title":"Visual perception of accelerated nitrogen nuclei interacting with the human retina","volume":"239","author":"Budinger","year":"1972","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"957","DOI":"10.1126\/science.183.4128.957","article-title":"Light flashes observed by astronauts on Apollo 11 through Apollo 17","volume":"183","author":"Pinsky","year":"1974","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1038\/234110a0","article-title":"Light flashes produced in the human eye by extremely relativistic muons","volume":"234","author":"McNulty","year":"1971","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"475","DOI":"10.1109\/23.490894","article-title":"Single-event effects experienced by astronauts and microelectronic circuits flown in space","volume":"43","author":"McNulty","year":"1996","journal-title":"IEEE Trans Nucl Sci"},{"key":"ref12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"160","DOI":"10.1126\/science.178.4057.160","article-title":"Visual sensations induced by relativistic nitrogen nuclei","volume":"178","author":"McNulty","year":"1972","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"680","DOI":"10.1038\/422680a","article-title":"Space travel: Dual origins of light flashes seen in space","volume":"422","author":"Casolino","year":"2003","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"416","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brs.2012.08.003","article-title":"Light flashes in cancer patients treated with heavy ions","volume":"6","author":"Schardt","year":"2013","journal-title":"Brain Stimul"},{"key":"ref15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.1016\/S1567-4231(09)70215-1","article-title":"Positive spontaneous visual phenomena","volume-title":"Disorders of visual processing, vol 6, Handbook of clinical neurophysiology","author":"Celesia","year":"2005"},{"key":"ref16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1125","DOI":"10.1016\/0042-6989(94)00187-Q","article-title":"Migraine phosphenes and the retino-cortical magnification factor","volume":"35","author":"Gr\u00fcsser","year":"1995","journal-title":"Vis Res"},{"key":"ref17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1247","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/122.7.1247","article-title":"The perceptual consequences of visual loss: 'positive' pathologies of vision","volume":"122","author":"Ffytche","year":"1999","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"ref18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"264","DOI":"10.1097\/00019052-199406000-00015","article-title":"Epidemiology of migraine and tension-type headache","volume":"7","author":"Rasmussen","year":"1994","journal-title":"Curr Opin Neurol"},{"key":"ref19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"258","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1468-2982.2003.00471.x","article-title":"The threshold for phosphenes is lower in migraine","volume":"23","author":"Aurora","year":"2003","journal-title":"Cephalalgia"},{"key":"ref20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"819","DOI":"10.1007\/s10072-012-1274-8","article-title":"Primary visual cortex excitability in migraine: a systematic review with meta-analysis","volume":"34","author":"Brigo","year":"2013","journal-title":"Neurol Sci"},{"key":"ref21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2090","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinph.2014.01.028","article-title":"Modulation of visual evoked potentials by high-frequency repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation in migraineurs","volume":"125","author":"Omland","year":"2014","journal-title":"Clin Neurophysiol"},{"key":"ref22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jns.2016.11.071","article-title":"Migraine affects 1 in 10 people worldwide featuring recent rise: A systematic review and meta-analysis of community-based studies involving 6 million participants","volume":"372","author":"Woldeamanuel","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Neurol Sci"},{"key":"ref23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1186\/s10194-019-0997-9","article-title":"Clinical neurophysiology of migraine with aura","volume":"20","author":"Coppola","year":"2019","journal-title":"Headache Pain"},{"key":"ref24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"463","DOI":"10.31083\/j.jin.2019.04.1182","article-title":"Migraine-linked characteristics of transcranial magnetic stimulation-induced phosphenes","volume":"18","author":"Ekkert","year":"2019","journal-title":"Integr Neurosci"},{"key":"ref25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1016\/s0165-0173(01)00081-9","article-title":"Spreading depression: a review of the clinical relevance","volume":"38","author":"Gorji","year":"2001","journal-title":"Brain Res Brain Res Rev"},{"key":"ref26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"266","DOI":"10.1016\/s0166-2236(00)01793-8","article-title":"Cortical spreading depression and migraine: new insights from imaging?","volume":"24","author":"James","year":"2001","journal-title":"Trends Neurosci"},{"key":"ref27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4687","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.071582498","article-title":"Mechanisms of migraine aura revealed by functional MRI in human visual cortex","volume":"98","author":"Hadjikhani","year":"2001","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci USA"},{"key":"ref28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1194","DOI":"10.3357\/asem.3340.2012","article-title":"You're the flight surgeon: migraine aura without headache","volume":"83","author":"McPherson","year":"2012","journal-title":"Aviat Space Environ Med"},{"key":"ref29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.1177\/0333102414536058","article-title":"Space headache on Earth: head-down-tilted bed rest studies simulating outer-space microgravity","volume":"35","author":"van Oosterhout","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cephalalgia"},{"key":"ref30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"738","DOI":"10.1038\/3738","article-title":"The anatomy of conscious vision: an fMRI study of visual hallucinations","volume":"1","author":"Ffytche","year":"1998","journal-title":"Nat Neurosci"},{"key":"ref31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1780","DOI":"10.1007\/s00415-015-7687-6","article-title":"On visual hallucinations and cortical networks: a trans-diagnostic review","volume":"262","author":"Carter","year":"2015","journal-title":"J Neurol"},{"key":"ref32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e86068","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0086068","article-title":"fMRI of retina-originated phosphenes experienced by patients with Leber congenital amaurosis","volume":"9","author":"Ashtari","year":"2014","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"ref33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2837","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awab170","article-title":"Mapping autonomic, mood and cognitive effects of hypothalamic region deep brain stimulation","volume":"144","author":"Neudorfer","year":"2021","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"ref34","first-page":"141","article-title":"Apollo\u2013Soyuz light-flashes observations","volume":"15","author":"Budinger","year":"1977","journal-title":"Life Sci Space Res"},{"key":"ref35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"511","DOI":"10.1016\/s0094-5765(01)00190-4","article-title":"Eye light flashes on the Mir space station","volume":"50","author":"Avdeev","year":"2002","journal-title":"Acta Astronaut"},{"key":"ref36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0123440","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0123440","article-title":"Extraretinal induced visual sensations during IMRT of the brain","volume":"10","author":"Wilhelm-Buchstab","year":"2015","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"ref37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"64579","DOI":"10.18632\/oncotarget.18719","article-title":"Mechanisms of phosphenes in irradiated patients","volume":"8","author":"Mathis","year":"2017","journal-title":"Oncotarget"},{"key":"ref38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajo.2018.05.006","article-title":"Occurrence of phosphenes in patients undergoing proton beam therapy for ocular tumor","volume":"192","author":"Mathis","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am J Ophthalmol"},{"key":"ref39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"140","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lssr.2020.04.006","article-title":"Multiple sensory illusions are evoked during the course of proton therapy","volume":"26","author":"Narici","year":"2020","journal-title":"Life Sci Space Res"},{"key":"ref40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"331","DOI":"10.1016\/j.oftale.2022.02.008","article-title":"Prediction of phosphenes occurrence in patients undergoing photon irradiation to ocular structures due to brain tumor","volume":"97","author":"Robles D\u00edaz","year":"2022","journal-title":"Arch Soc Esp Oftalmol (Engl)"},{"key":"ref41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"978","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijrobp.2012.08.010","article-title":"Electrophysiological monitoring in patients with tumors of the skull base treated by carbon-12 radiation therapy","volume":"85","author":"Carozzo","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys"},{"key":"ref42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"869","DOI":"10.1016\/S1470-2045(16)30034-1","article-title":"Phosphenes in patients receiving radiotherapy","volume":"17","author":"Thariat","year":"2016","journal-title":"Lancet Oncol"},{"key":"ref43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"574","DOI":"10.1038\/232574a0","article-title":"Visual sensation produced by cosmic ray muons","volume":"232","author":"Charman","year":"1971","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"522","DOI":"10.1038\/230522a0","article-title":"Visual sensation produced by single fast particles","volume":"230","author":"Charman","year":"1971","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"421","DOI":"10.1038\/232421a0","article-title":"Cosmic ray flashes in the eye","volume":"232","author":"McAulay","year":"1971","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7107","DOI":"10.1088\/0031-9155\/59\/23\/7107","article-title":"The physics of Cerenkov light production during proton therapy","volume":"59","author":"Helo","year":"2014","journal-title":"Phys Med Biol"},{"key":"ref47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neulet.2006.12.062","article-title":"Electrophysiological responses of the mouse retina to 12C ions","volume":"416","author":"Sannita","year":"2007","journal-title":"Neurosci Lett"},{"key":"ref48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neulet.2015.04.048","article-title":"Interaction of (12)C ions with the mouse retinal response to light","volume":"598","author":"Carozzo","year":"2015","journal-title":"Neurosci Lett"},{"key":"ref49","first-page":"430","article-title":"Mechanisms of the formation of X-ray induced phsphenes","volume":"82","author":"Doly","year":"1980","journal-title":"II: Photochem Invest Radiat Res"},{"key":"ref50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1139","DOI":"10.1016\/0042-6989(90)90171-G","article-title":"The radiation phosphene","volume":"30","author":"Steidly","year":"1990","journal-title":"Vis Res"},{"key":"ref51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"479","DOI":"10.1113\/jphysiol.1968.sp008519","article-title":"The sensations produced by the electrical stimulation of the visual cortex","volume":"196","author":"Brindley","year":"1968","journal-title":"J Physiol"},{"key":"ref52","first-page":"849","article-title":"Mapping of functional organization of the human visual cortex","volume":"54","author":"Lee","year":"2000","journal-title":"Electrical Cortical Stimulation Neurol"},{"key":"ref53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"553","DOI":"10.1113\/jphysiol.1974.sp010766","article-title":"Phosphenes produced by electrical stimulation of human occipital cortex, and their application to the development of a prosthesis for the blind","volume":"243","author":"Dobelle","year":"1974","journal-title":"J Physiol"},{"key":"ref54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"440","DOI":"10.1126\/science.183.4123.440","article-title":"Artificial vision for the blind: electrical stimulation of visual cortex","volume":"183","author":"Dobelle","year":"1974","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.1016\/s0039-6257(02)00311-9","article-title":"Retinal prosthesis for the blind","volume":"47","author":"Margalit","year":"2002","journal-title":"Surv Ophthalmol"},{"key":"ref56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.01-0291","article-title":"Electrical stimulation of anterior visual pathways in retinitis pigmentosa","volume":"42","author":"Delbeke","year":"2001","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"key":"ref57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1091","DOI":"10.1016\/s0042-6989(03)00013-0","article-title":"Position, size and luminosity of phosphenes generated by direct nerve stimulation","volume":"43","author":"Delbeke","year":"2003","journal-title":"Vis Res"},{"key":"ref58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0134369","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0134369","article-title":"Visual and Non-Visual Navigation in Blind Patients with a Retinal Prosthesis","volume":"10","author":"Garcia","year":"2015","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"ref59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1038\/35018000","article-title":"Transcranial magnetic stimulation and the human brain","volume":"406","author":"Hallett","year":"2000","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1007\/s00221-004-1992-0","article-title":"Transcranial magnetic stimulation in the visual system. II. Characterization of induced phosphenes and scotomas","volume":"160","author":"Kammer","year":"2005","journal-title":"Exp Brain Res"},{"key":"ref61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2857","DOI":"10.1007\/s00221-017-5022-4","article-title":"Retinal and visual cortex distance from transcranial magnetic stimulation of the vertex affects phosphene perception","volume":"235","author":"Webster","year":"2017","journal-title":"Exp Brain Res"},{"key":"ref62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinph.2022.04.022","article-title":"Transcranial magnetic stimulation of the brain: What is stimulated? - A consensus and critical position paper","volume":"140","author":"Siebner","year":"2022","journal-title":"Clin Neurophysiol"},{"key":"ref63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1027\/0269-8803\/a000110","article-title":"Miscoded visual processing in degenerative retinal disorder","volume":"28","author":"Carozzo","year":"2014","journal-title":"J Psychophysiol"},{"key":"ref64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2845","DOI":"10.1002\/cne.24530","article-title":"Alterations in synaptic density and myelination in response to exposure to high-energy charged particles","volume":"526","author":"Dickstein","year":"2018","journal-title":"J Comp Neurol"},{"key":"ref65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2546","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms19092546","article-title":"Delp MD1 Impact of Spaceflight and Artificial Gravity on the Mouse Retina: Biochemical and Proteomic Analysis","volume":"19","author":"Mao","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int J Mol Sci"},{"key":"ref66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.1006\/exer.1999.0804","article-title":"Retinal degeneration in the nervous mutant mouse. III. Electrophysiological studies of the visual pathway","volume":"70","author":"Ren","year":"2000","journal-title":"Exp Eye Res"},{"key":"ref67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2039","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.03-0741","article-title":"Morphological characterization of the retina of the CNGA3(\u2212\/\u2212)Rho(\u2212\/\u2212) mutant mouse lacking functional cones and rods","volume":"45","author":"Claes","year":"2004","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"key":"ref68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"560","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.02-1268","article-title":"Electrophysiological studies of the feasibility of suprachoroidal-transretinal stimulation for artificial vision in normal and RCS rats","volume":"45","author":"Kanda","year":"2004","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"key":"ref69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1002\/0470090839.ch2","article-title":"Non-rod, non-cone photoreception in rodents and teleost fish","volume":"253","author":"Foster","year":"2003","journal-title":"Novartis Found Symp"},{"key":"ref70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"749","DOI":"10.1038\/nature03387","article-title":"Melanopsin-expressing ganglion cells in primate retina signal colour and irradiance and project to the LGN","volume":"433","author":"Dacey","year":"2005","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"746","DOI":"10.1016\/S0076-6879(05)93039-5","article-title":"Nonvisual ocular photoreception in the mammal","volume":"393","author":"Van Gelder","year":"2005","journal-title":"Methods Enzymol"},{"key":"ref72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2726","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.00729.2001","article-title":"Multiwavelength optical intrinsic signal imaging of cortical spreading depression","volume":"88","author":"Ba","year":"2002","journal-title":"J Neurophysiol"},{"key":"ref73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1016\/j.preteyeres.2017.07.001","article-title":"Phosphenes, retinal discrete dark noise, negative afterimages and retinogeniculate projections: A new explanatory framework based on endogenous ocular luminescence","volume":"60","author":"Salari","year":"2017","journal-title":"Prog Retin Eye Res"},{"key":"ref74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"482","DOI":"10.1016\/j.freeradbiomed.2012.05.030","article-title":"Bovine rod rhodopsin. 1. Bleaching by luminescence in vitro by recombination of radicals from polyunsaturated fatty acids","volume":"53","author":"Narici","year":"2012","journal-title":"Free Radic Biol Med"},{"key":"ref75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"765","DOI":"10.3109\/09553002.2013.800245","article-title":"Bovine rod rhodopsin: 2. Bleaching in vitro upon 12C ions irradiation as source of effects as light flash for patients and for humans in space","volume":"89","author":"Narici","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int J Radiat Biol"},{"key":"ref76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brs.2022.12.012","article-title":"One in four people fail to perceive phosphenes during early visual cortex transcranial magnetic stimulation","volume":"16","author":"Phylactou","year":"2023","journal-title":"Brain Stimul"},{"key":"ref77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4649","DOI":"10.1007\/s10072-022-06146-0","article-title":"Space neuroscience: current understanding and future research","volume":"43","author":"Shirah","year":"2022","journal-title":"Neurol Sci"},{"key":"ref78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1007\/s00415-017-8427-x","article-title":"The effect of spaceflight and microgravity on the human brain","volume":"264","author":"Van Ombergen","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Neurol"},{"key":"ref79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1159\/000252852","article-title":"Space, gravity and the physiology of aging: parallel or convergent disciplines?","volume":"56","author":"Vernikos","year":"2010","journal-title":"A mini-review Gerontology"},{"key":"ref80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"621","DOI":"10.3390\/life4040621","article-title":"Microgravity-induced fluid shift and ophthalmic changes","volume":"4","author":"Nelson","year":"2014","journal-title":"Life (Basel)"},{"key":"ref81","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e1400256","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.1400256","article-title":"What happens to your brain on the way to Mars","volume":"1","author":"Parihar","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sci Adv"},{"key":"ref82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3389\/fphys.2017.00547","article-title":"Human pathophysiological adaptations to space environment","volume":"8","author":"Demontis","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front Physiol"},{"key":"ref83","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1460","DOI":"10.1016\/j.asr.2011.07.007","article-title":"Countermeasures for space radiation induced adverse biologic effects","volume":"48","author":"Kennedy","year":"2011","journal-title":"Adv Space Res"},{"key":"ref84","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1644","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-01707-2","article-title":"Performances of Kevlar and Polyethylene as radiation shielding on-board the International Space Station in high latitude radiation environment","volume":"7","author":"Narici","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"ref85","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"228","DOI":"10.1093\/rpd\/ncy216","article-title":"PERSEO collaboration: innovative solutions for personal radiation shielding in space","volume":"183","author":"Baiocco","year":"2019","journal-title":"Radiat Prot Dosim"},{"key":"ref86","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"S132","DOI":"10.1080\/09553002.2020.1820598","article-title":"Costes SV, Ionizing radiation-induced risks to the central nervous system and countermeasures in cellular and rodent models","volume":"97","author":"Pariset","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int J Radiat Biol"},{"key":"ref87","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lssr.2022.10.003","article-title":"Breaking the limit: Biological countermeasures for space radiation exposure to enable long-duration spaceflight","volume":"35","author":"Dynan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Life Sci Space Res (Amst)"},{"key":"ref88","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"110434","DOI":"10.1016\/j.radonc.2024.110434","article-title":"Particle arc therapy: Status and potential","volume":"199","author":"Mein","year":"2024","journal-title":"Radiother Oncol"}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Neurology"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fneur.2025.1621659\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,16]],"date-time":"2025-09-16T04:14:12Z","timestamp":1757996052000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fneur.2025.1621659\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,16]]},"references-count":88,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fneur.2025.1621659"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fneur.2025.1621659","relation":{},"ISSN":["1664-2295"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1664-2295"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,16]]},"article-number":"1621659"}}