{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,3]],"date-time":"2026-09-03T14:02:07Z","timestamp":1788444127743,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":194,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,13]],"date-time":"2025-10-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1760313600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Neurol."],"abstract":"<jats:p>Spinal cord injury (SCI) presents a significant clinical challenge due to its complex pathology and limited capacity for self-repair, often resulting in substantial physical dysfunction. Conventional treatments emphasize symptom management, yet usually fail to achieve nerve regeneration and full functional recovery. Recently, Exosomes(Exos) have gained attention as key modulators in biological processes such as immune regulation, intercellular communication, and tissue repair, showing promise in nerve injury and regeneration. This review synthesizes recent research on Exosome-based SCI therapies, including their biological origins, mechanisms, potential applications, and current limitations. Although Exos' research in SCI is nascent, early studies indicate promising safety and efficacy. Future studies are encouraged to delve deeper into Exos preparation, optimization, and delivery to maximize therapeutic effectiveness, potentially advancing SCI treatment options.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2025.1645457","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,13]],"date-time":"2025-10-13T04:17:37Z","timestamp":1760329057000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Exosome-mediated repair of spinal cord injury: cellular sources, mechanisms of action, and combined therapeutic strategies"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Zaihong","family":"Cha","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yu","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jianeng","family":"Pu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yuansheng","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Qixiong","family":"Lu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Wei","family":"Huang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tao","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xiaoyang","family":"Lu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"m3596","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.m3596","article-title":"Autonomic dysreflexia in spinal cord injury","volume":"371","author":"Cowan","year":"2020","journal-title":"BMJ."},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.4103\/ATN.ATN-D-25-00001","article-title":"Exosome-based therapy for spinal cord injury: a narrative review","volume":"2","author":"Zha","year":"2025","journal-title":"Adv Technol Neurosci."},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100077","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neumar.2025.100077","article-title":"Identification of novel biomarkers and immune characteristics of spinal cord injury based on comprehensive bioinformatic analysis: a retrospective observational study","volume":"2","author":"Zha","year":"2025","journal-title":"NeuroMarkers."},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.4103\/ATN.ATN-D-24-00001","article-title":"The applications of spinal cord stimulation in diseases with motor disorders, pain, and cognitive disturbance","volume":"1","author":"Shang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Adv Technol Neurosci"},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"976","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(23)00366-6","article-title":"Global burden of spinal cord injury: future directions","volume":"22","author":"Crispo","year":"2023","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol."},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"417","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(02)07603-1","article-title":"Spinal-cord injury","volume":"359","author":"McDonald","year":"2002","journal-title":"Lancet."},{"key":"B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"285","DOI":"10.1186\/s12916-024-03514-9","article-title":"Global incidence and characteristics of spinal cord injury since 2000-2021: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"22","author":"Lu","year":"2024","journal-title":"BMC Med."},{"key":"B8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(18)30415-0","article-title":"Global, regional, and national burden of traumatic brain injury and spinal cord injury, 1990-2016: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2016","volume":"18","year":"2019","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol."},{"key":"B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7533","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms21207533","article-title":"Spinal cord injury: pathophysiology, multimolecular interactions, and underlying recovery mechanisms","volume":"21","author":"Anjum","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int J Mol Sci."},{"key":"B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1007\/s11910-019-0984-1","article-title":"Modern medical management of spinal cord injury","volume":"19","author":"Karsy","year":"2019","journal-title":"Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep."},{"key":"B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.1038\/nrd3978","article-title":"Extracellular vesicles: biology and emerging therapeutic opportunities","volume":"12","author":"EL Andaloussi","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nat Rev Drug Discov."},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1535750","DOI":"10.1080\/20013078.2018.1535750","article-title":"Minimal information for studies of extracellular vesicles 2018 (MISEV2018): a position statement of the International Society for Extracellular Vesicles and update of the MISEV2014 guidelines","volume":"7","author":"Thery","year":"2018","journal-title":"J Extracell Vesicles."},{"key":"B13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"107983","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biotechadv.2022.107983","article-title":"Boosting extracellular vesicle secretion","volume":"59","author":"Debbi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Biotechnol Adv"},{"key":"B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100078","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neumar.2025.100078","article-title":"Blood biomarkers for clinical applications in Alzheimer's disease: a narrative review","volume":"2","author":"Li","year":"2025","journal-title":"NeuroMarkers."},{"key":"B15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"eaau6977","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aau6977","article-title":"The biology, function, and biomedical applications of exosomes","volume":"367","author":"Kalluri","year":"2020","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"B16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1186\/s13287-023-03614-y","article-title":"Exosome-mediated repair of spinal cord injury: a promising therapeutic strategy","volume":"15","author":"Yu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Stem Cell Res Ther"},{"key":"B17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1111\/prd.12561","article-title":"Understanding exosomes: part 2-emerging leaders in regenerative medicine","volume":"94","author":"Miron","year":"2024","journal-title":"Periodontol"},{"key":"B18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1038\/s41392-023-01704-0","article-title":"Clinical applications of stem cell-derived exosomes","volume":"9","author":"Tan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Signal Transduct Target Ther."},{"key":"B19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.1186\/s12951-024-02380-0","article-title":"Non-stem cell-derived exosomes: a novel therapeutics for neurotrauma","volume":"22","author":"Nie","year":"2024","journal-title":"J Nanobiotechnology"},{"key":"B20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jot.2021.09.008","article-title":"Potential of different cells-derived exosomal microRNA cargos for treating spinal cord injury","volume":"31","author":"Pan","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Orthop Translat"},{"key":"B21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bioactmat.2023.06.013","article-title":"Mesenchymal stem cell secretome and extracellular vesicles for neurodegenerative diseases: risk-benefit profile and next steps for the market access","volume":"29","author":"Giovannelli","year":"2023","journal-title":"Bioact Mater"},{"key":"B22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"30087","DOI":"10.3402\/jev.v4.30087","article-title":"Applying extracellular vesicles based therapeutics in clinical trials - an ISEV position paper","volume":"4","author":"Lener","year":"2015","journal-title":"J Extracell Vesicles"},{"key":"B23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"10811","DOI":"10.1021\/acsnano.2c02898","article-title":"Stimulation by exosomes from hypoxia preconditioned human umbilical vein endothelial cells facilitates mesenchymal stem cells angiogenic function for spinal cord repair","volume":"16","author":"Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"B24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1186\/s12974-020-1726-7","article-title":"Exosome-shuttled miR-216a-5p from hypoxic preconditioned mesenchymal stem cells repair traumatic spinal cord injury by shifting microglial M1\/M2 polarization","volume":"17","author":"Liu","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Neuroinflammation"},{"key":"B25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e1802896","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.201802896","article-title":"Exosome biochemistry and advanced nanotechnology for next-generation theranostic platforms","volume":"31","author":"Yang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Adv Mater."},{"key":"B26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"17802","DOI":"10.1021\/acsnano.2c08774","article-title":"Exosomes horizontal line nature's lipid nanoparticles, a rising star in drug delivery and diagnostics","volume":"16","author":"Tenchov","year":"2022","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"B27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymthe.2020.11.030","article-title":"Plant exosome-like nanovesicles: emerging therapeutics and drug delivery nanoplatforms","volume":"29","author":"Dad","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mol Ther."},{"key":"B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1127","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jconrel.2022.12.027","article-title":"Hybrid exosomes, exosome-like nanovesicles and engineered exosomes for therapeutic applications","volume":"353","author":"Mondal","year":"2023","journal-title":"J Control Release"},{"key":"B29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1038\/d41573-020-00220-y","article-title":"Exosome-based candidates move into the clinic","volume":"20","author":"Cully","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat Rev Drug Discov."},{"key":"B30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"492","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tins.2021.01.003","article-title":"Extracellular vesicles as an emerging frontier in spinal cord injury pathobiology and therapy","volume":"44","author":"Dutta","year":"2021","journal-title":"Trends Neurosci"},{"key":"B31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100044","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vesic.2024.100044","article-title":"From hope to healing: exploring the therapeutic potential of exosomes in spinal cord injury","volume":"3","author":"Singh","year":"2024","journal-title":"Extracellular Vesicle."},{"key":"B32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"919","DOI":"10.1002\/med.22002","article-title":"Translating mesenchymal stem cell and their exosome research into GMP compliant advanced therapy products: promises, problems and prospects","volume":"44","author":"Ma","year":"2024","journal-title":"Med Res Rev."},{"key":"B33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6548","DOI":"10.7150\/thno.74305","article-title":"Small extracellular vesicles isolation and separation: current techniques, pending questions and clinical applications","volume":"12","author":"Jia","year":"2022","journal-title":"Theranostics."},{"key":"B34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1186\/s13287-021-02153-8","article-title":"Mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes: therapeutic opportunities and challenges for spinal cord injury","volume":"12","author":"Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Stem Cell Res Ther"},{"key":"B35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"836","DOI":"10.1038\/s12276-024-01201-6","article-title":"Recent advances in extracellular vesicles for therapeutic cargo delivery","volume":"56","author":"Kim","year":"2024","journal-title":"Exp Mol Med"},{"key":"B36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"519","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actbio.2021.09.026","article-title":"Exosomal OTULIN from M2 macrophages promotes the recovery of spinal cord injuries via stimulating Wnt\/beta-catenin pathway-mediated vascular regeneration","volume":"136","author":"Luo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Acta Biomater"},{"key":"B37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.4103\/ATN.ATN-D-25-00009","article-title":"Engineered exosome-based treatment for peripheral nerve regeneration: a narrative review of clinical prospects","volume":"2","author":"Yao","year":"2025","journal-title":"Adv Technol Neurosci."},{"key":"B38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"487","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-biochem-013118-111902","article-title":"Exosomes","volume":"88","author":"Pegtel","year":"2019","journal-title":"Annu Rev Biochem."},{"key":"B39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tcb.2023.06.006","article-title":"The ins-and-outs of exosome biogenesis, secretion, and internalization","volume":"34","author":"Arya","year":"2024","journal-title":"Trends Cell Biol."},{"key":"B40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1038\/nrm.2017.125","article-title":"Shedding light on the cell biology of extracellular vesicles","volume":"19","author":"van Niel","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol."},{"key":"B41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"533","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jconrel.2022.05.027","article-title":"Exosomes: large-scale production, isolation, drug loading efficiency, and biodistribution and uptake","volume":"347","author":"Kimiz-Gebologlu","year":"2022","journal-title":"J Control Release."},{"key":"B42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"428","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2019.02.029","article-title":"Reassessment of exosome composition","volume":"177","author":"Jeppesen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"B43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1186\/s12964-021-00730-1","article-title":"The exosome journey: from biogenesis to uptake and intracellular signalling","volume":"19","author":"Gurung","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell Commun Signal"},{"key":"B44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"677","DOI":"10.1038\/ncb2502","article-title":"Syndecan-syntenin-ALIX regulates the biogenesis of exosomes","volume":"14","author":"Baietti","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat Cell Biol"},{"key":"B45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1078761","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2022.1078761","article-title":"Induced pluripotent stem cells as natural biofactories for exosomes carrying miR-199b-5p in the treatment of spinal cord injury","volume":"13","author":"Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front Pharmacol"},{"key":"B46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e70066","DOI":"10.1002\/jev2.70066","article-title":"Intranasal Delivery of Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF)-loaded small extracellular vesicles for treating acute spinal cord injury in rats and monkeys","volume":"14","author":"Huang","year":"2025","journal-title":"J Extracell Vesicles"},{"key":"B47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2259","DOI":"10.4103\/1673-5374.391194","article-title":"Small extracellular vesicles from hypoxia-preconditioned bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells attenuate spinal cord injury via miR-146a-5p-mediated regulation of macrophage polarization","volume":"19","author":"Liang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Neural Regen Res."},{"key":"B48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bioactmat.2021.11.022","article-title":"Exosomes derived from differentiated human ADMSC with the Schwann cell phenotype modulate peripheral nerve-related cellular functions","volume":"14","author":"Liu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Bioact Mater"},{"key":"B49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"149496","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbrc.2024.149496","article-title":"Platelet-rich plasma-derived exosomes enhance mesenchymal stem cell paracrine function and nerve regeneration potential","volume":"699","author":"Zhang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Biochem Biophys Res Commun."},{"key":"B50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"587","DOI":"10.3390\/md19110587","article-title":"Omega-3 DPA Protected Neurons from Neuroinflammation by balancing Microglia M1\/M2 polarizations through inhibiting NF-kappaB\/MAPK p38 signaling and activating Neuron-BDNF-PI3K\/AKT pathways","volume":"19","author":"Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mar Drugs"},{"key":"B51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"802","DOI":"10.1038\/35037739","article-title":"Apoptosis in the nervous system","volume":"407","author":"Yuan","year":"2000","journal-title":"Nature."},{"key":"B52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1038\/cdd.2017.170","article-title":"Anti-apoptotic BCL-2 family members in development","volume":"25","author":"Opferman","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cell Death Differ."},{"key":"B53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1016\/j.semcancer.2021.07.014","article-title":"Heat shock proteins and exosomes in cancer theranostics","volume":"86","author":"Regimbeau","year":"2022","journal-title":"Semin Cancer Biol"},{"key":"B54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.1186\/s12951-024-02338-2","article-title":"Exosome lncRNA IFNG-AS1 derived from mesenchymal stem cells of human adipose ameliorates neurogenesis and ASD-like behavior in BTBR mice","volume":"22","author":"Fu","year":"2024","journal-title":"J Nanobiotechnology."},{"key":"B55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"22928","DOI":"10.1021\/acsnano.3c08046","article-title":"Schwann cell-derived exosomes and methylprednisolone composite patch for spinal cord injury repair","volume":"17","author":"Zhu","year":"2023","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"B56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1186\/s12974-022-02405-1","article-title":"Maresin 1 promotes nerve regeneration and alleviates neuropathic pain after nerve injury","volume":"19","author":"Wei","year":"2022","journal-title":"J Neuroinflammation"},{"key":"B57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"111168","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopha.2020.111168","article-title":"Neuregulin-1 converts reactive astrocytes toward oligodendrocyte lineage cells via upregulating the PI3K-AKT-mTOR pathway to repair spinal cord injury","volume":"134","author":"Ding","year":"2021","journal-title":"Biomed Pharmacother"},{"key":"B58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"153664","DOI":"10.1016\/j.phymed.2021.153664","article-title":"Natural products attenuate PI3K\/Akt\/mTOR signaling pathway: a promising strategy in regulating neurodegeneration","volume":"91","author":"Fakhri","year":"2021","journal-title":"Phytomedicine."},{"key":"B59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jconrel.2024.03.037","article-title":"Intranasal delivery of small extracellular vesicles from specific subpopulation of mesenchymal stem cells mitigates traumatic spinal cord injury","volume":"369","author":"Sun","year":"2024","journal-title":"J Control Release"},{"key":"B60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"170","DOI":"10.1038\/s41420-024-01938-z","article-title":"The crosstalk between exosomes and ferroptosis: a review","volume":"10","author":"Wu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cell Death Discov"},{"key":"B61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.3390\/cells12020311","article-title":"Implications of crosstalk between exosome-mediated ferroptosis and diseases for pathogenesis and treatment","volume":"12","author":"Zhou","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cells"},{"key":"B62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2401","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2022.06.003","article-title":"Ferroptosis turns 10: emerging mechanisms, physiological functions, and therapeutic applications","volume":"185","author":"Stockwell","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cell."},{"key":"B63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1861","DOI":"10.4103\/1673-5374.367838","article-title":"Mesenchymal stem cells, extracellular vesicles, and transcranial magnetic stimulation for ferroptosis after spinal cord injury","volume":"18","author":"Song","year":"2023","journal-title":"Neural Regen Res"},{"key":"B64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2236","DOI":"10.1111\/cns.14159","article-title":"Human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosome suppresses programmed cell death in traumatic brain injury via PINK1\/Parkin-mediated mitophagy","volume":"29","author":"Zhang","year":"2023","journal-title":"CNS Neurosci Ther."},{"key":"B65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"642","DOI":"10.14245\/ns.2448038.019","article-title":"Inhibition of ferroptosis by mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes in acute spinal cord injury: role of Nrf2\/GCH1\/BH4","volume":"21","author":"Chen","year":"2024","journal-title":"Axis Neurospine"},{"key":"B66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5150","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-023-40926-2","article-title":"Astroglial exosome HepaCAM signaling and ApoE antagonization coordinates early postnatal cortical pyramidal neuronal axon growth and dendritic spine formation","volume":"14","author":"Jin","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat Commun"},{"key":"B67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"723","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0000000000011782","article-title":"Reader response: first-ever ischemic stroke and increased risk of incident heart disease in older adults","volume":"96","author":"Sioka","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neurology."},{"key":"B68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-40764-7_9","article-title":"Schwann cell and axon: an interlaced unit-from action potential to phenotype expression","volume":"949","author":"Court","year":"2016","journal-title":"Adv Exp Med Biol."},{"key":"B69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5772","DOI":"10.1093\/nar\/gkac337","article-title":"Intra-axonal translation of Khsrp mRNA slows axon regeneration by destabilizing localized mRNAs","volume":"50","author":"Patel","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nucleic Acids Res"},{"key":"B70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e2304487","DOI":"10.1002\/advs.202304487","article-title":"A novel magnetic responsive miR-26a@SPIONs-OECs for spinal cord injury: triggering neural regeneration program and orienting axon guidance in inhibitory astrocytic environment","volume":"10","author":"Gao","year":"2023","journal-title":"Adv Sci."},{"key":"B71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1186\/s12951-023-01767-9","article-title":"Endothelial cell-derived exosomes boost and maintain repair-related phenotypes of Schwann cells via miR199-5p to promote nerve regeneration","volume":"21","author":"Huang","year":"2023","journal-title":"J Nanobiotechnology."},{"key":"B72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"510","DOI":"10.7150\/thno.89008","article-title":"Exosomes derived from CD271(+)CD56(+) bone marrow mesenchymal stem cell subpopoulation identified by single-cell RNA sequencing promote axon regeneration after spinal cord injury","volume":"14","author":"Sun","year":"2024","journal-title":"Theranostics."},{"key":"B73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e2105586","DOI":"10.1002\/advs.202105586","article-title":"Exosomes-loaded electroconductive hydrogel synergistically promotes tissue repair after spinal cord injury via immunoregulation and enhancement of myelinated axon growth","volume":"9","author":"Fan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Adv Sci."},{"key":"B74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1293","DOI":"10.4103\/1673-5374.357900","article-title":"Treadmill exercise exerts a synergistic effect with bone marrow mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes on neuronal apoptosis and synaptic-axonal remodeling","volume":"18","author":"Jiang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Neural Regen Res"},{"key":"B75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conb.2018.12.001","article-title":"Phase separation as a mechanism for assembling dynamic postsynaptic density signalling complexes","volume":"57","author":"Feng","year":"2019","journal-title":"Curr Opin Neurobiol"},{"key":"B76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.20517\/evcna.2023.13","article-title":"Synaptic proteins in neuron-derived extracellular vesicles as biomarkers for Alzheimer's disease: novel methodology and clinical proof of concept","volume":"4","author":"Eitan","year":"2023","journal-title":"Extracell Vesicles Circ Nucl Acids"},{"key":"B77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"0402","DOI":"10.34133\/research.0402","article-title":"Targeted delivery of engineered RVG-BDNF-exosomes: a novel neurobiological approach for ameliorating depression and regulating neurogenesis","volume":"7","author":"Liu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Research"},{"key":"B78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1250753","DOI":"10.3389\/fnsyn.2023.1250753","article-title":"Synaptic plasticity through a naturalistic lens","volume":"15","author":"Piette","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front Synaptic Neurosci."},{"key":"B79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1997","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2024.03.013","article-title":"Enhanced mitochondrial fusion during a critical period of synaptic plasticity in adult-born neurons","volume":"112","author":"Kochan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"B80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e1800266","DOI":"10.1002\/pmic.201800266","article-title":"Arrestin-domain containing protein 1 (Arrdc1) regulates the protein cargo and release of extracellular vesicles","volume":"18","author":"Anand","year":"2018","journal-title":"Proteomics"},{"key":"B81","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"32621","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M804120200","article-title":"Nedd4 family-interacting protein 1 (Ndfip1) is required for the exosomal secretion of Nedd4 family proteins","volume":"283","author":"Putz","year":"2008","journal-title":"J Biol Chem"},{"key":"B82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"706","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biocel.2012.12.006","article-title":"Nedd4 and Nedd4-2: ubiquitin ligases at work in the neuron","volume":"45","author":"Donovan","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int J Biochem Cell Biol."},{"key":"B83","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"13205","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1400737111","article-title":"Ubiquitin E3 ligase Nedd4-1 acts as a downstream target of PI3K\/PTEN-mTORC1 signaling to promote neurite growth","volume":"111","author":"Hsia","year":"2014","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci USA"},{"key":"B84","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1177","DOI":"10.1101\/gad.338046.120","article-title":"The Daam2-VHL-Nedd4 axis governs developmental and regenerative oligodendrocyte differentiation","volume":"34","author":"Ding","year":"2020","journal-title":"Genes Dev"},{"key":"B85","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"422","DOI":"10.1002\/glia.24642","article-title":"The E3 ubiquitin ligase Nedd4 fosters developmental myelination in the mouse central and peripheral nervous system","volume":"73","author":"Fimiani","year":"2025","journal-title":"Glia"},{"key":"B86","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.92757.2","article-title":"Commissureless acts as a substrate adapter in a conserved Nedd4 E3 ubiquitin ligase pathway to promote axon growth across the midline","author":"Sullivan","year":"2024","journal-title":"bioRxiv."},{"key":"B87","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jot.2021.09.004","article-title":"Endocytosis-associated patterns in nerve regeneration after peripheral nerve injury","volume":"31","author":"Shi","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Orthop Translat"},{"key":"B88","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1912","DOI":"10.1007\/s11064-023-03862-7","article-title":"MiR-155-5p Aggravated astrocyte activation and glial scarring in a spinal cord injury model by inhibiting Ndfip1 expression and PTEN nuclear translocation","volume":"48","author":"He","year":"2023","journal-title":"Neurochem Res"},{"key":"B89","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"284","DOI":"10.1186\/s12974-021-02337-2","article-title":"Inflammation after spinal cord injury: a review of the critical timeline of signaling cues and cellular infiltration","volume":"18","author":"Hellenbrand","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Neuroinflammation"},{"key":"B90","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2155","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2023.04.011","article-title":"Age-dependent immune and lymphatic responses after spinal cord injury","volume":"111","author":"Salvador","year":"2023","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"B91","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1068359","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2023.1068359","article-title":"Combination of single-cell and bulk RNA seq reveals the immune infiltration landscape and targeted therapeutic drugs in spinal cord injury","volume":"14","author":"Zhang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front Immunol."},{"key":"B92","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2692","DOI":"10.3390\/cells11172692","article-title":"Inflammation: a target for treatment in spinal cord injury","volume":"11","author":"Freyermuth-Trujillo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cells."},{"key":"B93","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"785","DOI":"10.1007\/s00401-019-01992-3","article-title":"The origin, fate, and contribution of macrophages to spinal cord injury pathology","volume":"137","author":"Milich","year":"2019","journal-title":"Acta Neuropathol."},{"key":"B94","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"112311","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopha.2021.112311","article-title":"Exosomes-mediated phenotypic switch of macrophages in the immune microenvironment after spinal cord injury","volume":"144","author":"Peng","year":"2021","journal-title":"Biomed Pharmacother"},{"key":"B95","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-pathmechdis-012418-012718","article-title":"Diversity, mechanisms, and significance of macrophage plasticity","volume":"15","author":"Locati","year":"2020","journal-title":"Annu Rev Pathol."},{"key":"B96","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1186\/s12974-020-02041-7","article-title":"Mer regulates microglial\/macrophage M1\/M2 polarization and alleviates neuroinflammation following traumatic brain injury","volume":"18","author":"Wu","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Neuroinflammation"},{"key":"B97","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1181","DOI":"10.1007\/s12035-014-9070-5","article-title":"Differential roles of M1 and M2 microglia in neurodegenerative diseases","volume":"53","author":"Tang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mol Neurobiol"},{"key":"B98","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1038\/s41419-023-05607-4","article-title":"Schwann cell-derived exosomes containing MFG-E8 modify macrophage\/microglial polarization for attenuating inflammation via the SOCS3\/STAT3 pathway after spinal cord injury","volume":"14","author":"Ren","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cell Death Dis"},{"key":"B99","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1186\/s12951-022-01273-4","article-title":"Dental pulp stem cell-derived exosomes suppress M1 macrophage polarization through the ROS-MAPK-NFkappaB P65 signaling pathway after spinal cord injury","volume":"20","author":"Liu","year":"2022","journal-title":"J Nanobiotechnology"},{"key":"B100","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1186\/s12951-023-01986-0","article-title":"UTX deletion promotes M2 macrophage polarization by epigenetically regulating endothelial cell-macrophage crosstalk after spinal cord injury","volume":"21","author":"Peng","year":"2023","journal-title":"J Nanobiotechnology"},{"key":"B101","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"156","DOI":"10.1186\/s12974-023-02833-7","article-title":"Endothelial progenitor cell-derived exosomes promote anti-inflammatory macrophages via SOCS3\/JAK2\/STAT3 axis and improve the outcome of spinal cord injury","volume":"20","author":"Yuan","year":"2023","journal-title":"J Neuroinflammation."},{"key":"B102","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"364","DOI":"10.1186\/s12951-023-02188-4","article-title":"Treg cells-derived exosomes promote blood-spinal cord barrier repair and motor function recovery after spinal cord injury by delivering miR-2861","volume":"21","author":"Kong","year":"2023","journal-title":"J Nanobiotechnol."},{"key":"B103","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"529","DOI":"10.1186\/s12951-022-01724-y","article-title":"Treg cell-derived exosomes miR-709 attenuates microglia pyroptosis and promotes motor function recovery after spinal cord injury","volume":"20","author":"Xiong","year":"2022","journal-title":"J Nanobiotechnology"},{"key":"B104","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"350","DOI":"10.5115\/acb.20.299","article-title":"Ibrutinib reduces neutrophil infiltration, preserves neural tissue and enhances locomotor recovery in mouse contusion model of spinal cord injury","volume":"54","author":"Torabi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Anat Cell Biol"},{"key":"B105","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"355","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms23010355","article-title":"Inhibition of bruton tyrosine kinase reduces neuroimmune cascade and promotes recovery after spinal cord injury","volume":"23","author":"Yu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int J Mol Sci"},{"key":"B106","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100522","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mtbio.2022.100522","article-title":"Extracellular vesicle-loaded hydrogels for tissue repair and regeneration","volume":"18","author":"Ju","year":"2023","journal-title":"Mater Today Bio"},{"key":"B107","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2861","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms23052861","article-title":"Isolation of platelet-derived exosomes from human platelet-rich plasma: biochemical and morphological characterization","volume":"23","author":"Saumell-Esnaola","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int J Mol Sci"},{"key":"B108","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1186\/s13287-020-02078-8","article-title":"Local delivery of USC-derived exosomes harboring ANGPTL3 enhances spinal cord functional recovery after injury by promoting angiogenesis","volume":"12","author":"Cao","year":"2021","journal-title":"Stem Cell Res Ther"},{"key":"B109","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"124","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jot.2023.02.001","article-title":"Cerebrospinal fluid-derived extracellular vesicles after spinal cord injury promote vascular regeneration via PI3K\/AKT signaling pathway","volume":"39","author":"Li","year":"2023","journal-title":"J Orthop Translat"},{"key":"B110","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"452","DOI":"10.1186\/s12951-023-02110-y","article-title":"Pericyte-derived exosomal miR-210 improves mitochondrial function and inhibits lipid peroxidation in vascular endothelial cells after traumatic spinal cord injury by activating JAK1\/STAT3 signaling pathway","volume":"21","author":"Gao","year":"2023","journal-title":"J Nanobiotechnology"},{"key":"B111","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"18008","DOI":"10.1021\/acsnano.3c04423","article-title":"Targeted delivery of RGD-CD146(+)CD271(+) human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes promotes blood-spinal cord barrier repair after spinal cord injury","volume":"17","author":"Xie","year":"2023","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"B112","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"121251","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biomaterials.2021.121251","article-title":"BMSC-derived extracellular matrix better optimizes the microenvironment to support nerve regeneration","volume":"280","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Biomaterials"},{"key":"B113","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"15731","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.1339-15.2015","article-title":"Neuronal RARbeta signaling modulates PTEN activity directly in neurons and via exosome transfer in astrocytes to prevent glial scar formation and induce spinal cord regeneration","volume":"35","author":"Goncalves","year":"2015","journal-title":"J Neurosci"},{"key":"B114","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"113500","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopha.2022.113500","article-title":"Spatiotemporal dynamics of the cellular components involved in glial scar formation following spinal cord injury","volume":"153","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Biomed Pharmacother"},{"key":"B115","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1038\/s41413-022-00199-9","article-title":"Progression in translational research on spinal cord injury based on microenvironment imbalance","volume":"10","author":"Fan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Bone Res."},{"key":"B116","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"16355","DOI":"10.1021\/acsami.2c19607","article-title":"Bioactive spinal cord scaffold releasing neurotrophic exosomes to promote in situ centralis neuroplasticity","volume":"15","author":"Mi","year":"2023","journal-title":"ACS Appl Mater Interfaces"},{"key":"B117","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4502","DOI":"10.1007\/s12035-023-03341-8","article-title":"Neuron-derived exosomes promote the recovery of spinal cord injury by modulating nerve cells in the cellular microenvironment of the lesion area","volume":"60","author":"Xu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Mol Neurobiol."},{"key":"B118","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-605X\/ac1d3c","article-title":"Research advances of biomaterials-based microenvironment-regulation therapies for repair and regeneration of spinal cord injury","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"Biomed Mater"},{"key":"B119","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1989","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbamcr.2017.05.027","article-title":"Metalloproteinases in extracellular vesicles","volume":"1864","author":"Shimoda","year":"2017","journal-title":"Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Cell Res."},{"key":"B120","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e2102102","DOI":"10.1002\/smll.202102102","article-title":"Anti-Inflammatory nanotherapeutics by targeting matrix metalloproteinases for immunotherapy of spinal cord injury","volume":"17","author":"Shen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Small."},{"key":"B121","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"469","DOI":"10.1089\/neu.2018.5835","article-title":"Exosomes derived from bone mesenchymal stem cells repair traumatic spinal cord injury by suppressing the activation of A1 neurotoxic reactive astrocytes","volume":"36","author":"Liu","year":"2019","journal-title":"J Neurotrauma"},{"key":"B122","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1186\/s13287-024-03758-5","article-title":"Stem cell exosome-loaded Gelfoam improves locomotor dysfunction and neuropathic pain in a rat model of spinal cord injury","volume":"15","author":"Poongodi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Stem Cell Res Ther"},{"key":"B123","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"214357","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bioadv.2025.214357","article-title":"Rab27a-mediated extracellular vesicle release drives astrocytic CSPG secretion and glial scarring in spinal cord injury","volume":"176","author":"Singh","year":"2025","journal-title":"Biomater Adv."},{"key":"B124","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"750","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jconrel.2023.08.025","article-title":"Targeted delivery of CD163(+) macrophage-derived small extracellular vesicles via RGD peptides promote vascular regeneration and stabilization after spinal cord injury","volume":"361","author":"Peng","year":"2023","journal-title":"J Control Release"},{"key":"B125","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6391","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.nanolett.2c02259","article-title":"Three-dimensional-cultured MSC-derived exosome-hydrogel hybrid microneedle array patch for spinal cord repair","volume":"22","author":"Han","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nano Lett"},{"key":"B126","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1186\/s12951-023-02255-w","article-title":"M2 microglia-derived exosome-loaded electroconductive hydrogel for enhancing neurological recovery after spinal cord injury","volume":"22","author":"Guan","year":"2024","journal-title":"J Nanobiotechnology."},{"key":"B127","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4298","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.nanolett.0c00929","article-title":"Transplantation of human mesenchymal stem-cell-derived exosomes immobilized in an adhesive hydrogel for effective treatment of spinal cord injury","volume":"20","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nano Lett."},{"key":"B128","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms222413347","article-title":"Bio-scaffolds as cell or exosome carriers for nerve injury repair","author":"Poongodi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int J Mol Sci"},{"key":"B129","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actbio.2022.10.027","article-title":"A functionalized collagen-I scaffold delivers microRNA 21-loaded exosomes for spinal cord injury repair","volume":"154","author":"Liu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Acta Biomater"},{"key":"B130","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e2001896","DOI":"10.1002\/adhm.202001896","article-title":"NSCs migration promoted and drug delivered exosomes-collagen scaffold via a bio-specific peptide for one-step spinal cord injury repair","volume":"10","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Adv Healthc Mater."},{"key":"B131","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"242","DOI":"10.1186\/s12951-021-00986-2","article-title":"Artificial exosomes for translational nanomedicine","volume":"19","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Nanobiotechnology."},{"key":"B132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3183","DOI":"10.7150\/thno.52570","article-title":"Engineering exosomes for targeted drug delivery","volume":"11","author":"Liang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Theranostics."},{"key":"B133","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1225","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymthe.2023.01.021","article-title":"Extracellular vesicles: the next generation in gene therapy delivery","volume":"31","author":"Cecchin","year":"2023","journal-title":"Mol Ther."},{"key":"B134","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7923","DOI":"10.2147\/IJN.S444582","article-title":"Engineered exosome for drug delivery: recent development and clinical applications","volume":"18","author":"Tian","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int J Nanomed"},{"key":"B135","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.7150\/thno.21945","article-title":"Exosome theranostics: biology and translational medicine","volume":"8","author":"He","year":"2018","journal-title":"Theranostics."},{"key":"B136","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"121949","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biomaterials.2022.121949","article-title":"Exosomes based strategies for brain drug delivery","volume":"293","author":"Rehman","year":"2023","journal-title":"Biomaterials."},{"key":"B137","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"10015","DOI":"10.1021\/acsnano.9b01892","article-title":"Intranasal delivery of mesenchymal stem cell derived exosomes loaded with phosphatase and tensin homolog siRNA repairs complete spinal cord injury","volume":"13","author":"Guo","year":"2019","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"B138","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1021\/acsnano.2c10219","article-title":"Immune exosomes loading self-assembled nanomicelles traverse the blood-brain barrier for chemo-immunotherapy against glioblastoma","author":"Cui","year":"2023","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"B139","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actbio.2021.03.018","article-title":"Berberine-loaded M2 macrophage-derived exosomes for spinal cord injury therapy","volume":"126","author":"Gao","year":"2021","journal-title":"Acta Biomater"},{"key":"B140","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3886","DOI":"10.1021\/acsnano.5b08015","article-title":"Evidence-based clinical use of nanoscale extracellular vesicles in nanomedicine","volume":"10","author":"Fais","year":"2016","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"B141","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"104","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jconrel.2017.07.023","article-title":"Mesenchymal stem\/stromal cell extracellular vesicles: from active principle to next generation drug delivery system","volume":"262","author":"Crivelli","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Control Release"},{"key":"B142","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6455","DOI":"10.7150\/thno.73436","article-title":"Efficacy and safety of small extracellular vesicle interventions in wound healing and skin regeneration: a systematic review and meta-analysis of animal studies","volume":"12","author":"Al-Masawa","year":"2022","journal-title":"Theranostics"},{"key":"B143","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e12134","DOI":"10.1002\/jev2.12134","article-title":"Preclinical efficacy and clinical safety of clinical-grade nebulized allogenic adipose mesenchymal stromal cells-derived extracellular vesicles","volume":"10","author":"Shi","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Extracell Vesicles."},{"key":"B144","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"581","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcyt.2018.12.006","article-title":"Manufacturing and characterization of extracellular vesicles from umbilical cord-derived mesenchymal stromal cells for clinical testing","volume":"21","author":"Rohde","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cytotherapy."},{"key":"B145","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.1186\/s13287-023-03287-7","article-title":"Mesenchymal stromal\/stem cell (MSC)-derived exosomes in clinical trials","volume":"14","author":"Lotfy","year":"2023","journal-title":"Stem Cell Res Ther."},{"key":"B146","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"264","DOI":"10.1186\/s13287-024-03868-0","article-title":"Safety and potential effects of intrathecal injection of allogeneic human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes in complete subacute spinal cord injury: a first-in-human, single-arm, open-label, phase I clinical trial","volume":"15","author":"Akhlaghpasand","year":"2024","journal-title":"Stem Cell Res Ther."},{"key":"B147","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"405","DOI":"10.4103\/1673-5374.293130","article-title":"Progress in clinical trials of cell transplantation for the treatment of spinal cord injury: how many questions remain unanswered?","volume":"16","author":"Kang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neural Regen Res."},{"key":"B148","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"585","DOI":"10.1080\/10717544.2020.1748758","article-title":"Prospects and challenges of extracellular vesicle-based drug delivery system: considering cell source","volume":"27","author":"Meng","year":"2020","journal-title":"Drug Deliv"},{"key":"B149","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"789","DOI":"10.7150\/thno.18133","article-title":"Progress in exosome isolation techniques","volume":"7","author":"Li","year":"2017","journal-title":"Theranostics"},{"key":"B150","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e12238","DOI":"10.1002\/jev2.12238","article-title":"Identification of storage conditions stabilizing extracellular vesicles preparations","volume":"11","author":"Gorgens","year":"2022","journal-title":"J Extracell Vesicles"},{"key":"B151","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1359478","DOI":"10.1080\/20013078.2017.1359478","article-title":"Effects of storage temperature on airway exosome integrity for diagnostic and functional analyses","volume":"6","author":"Maroto","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Extracell Vesicles"},{"key":"B152","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"369","DOI":"10.4103\/1673-5374.377413","article-title":"Advances in extracellular vesicle-based combination therapies for spinal cord injury","volume":"19","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Neural Regen Res"},{"key":"B153","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"102625","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nano.2022.102625","article-title":"An antioxidative sophora exosome-encapsulated hydrogel promotes spinal cord repair by regulating oxidative stress microenvironment","volume":"47","author":"Chen","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nanomedicine."},{"key":"B154","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1186\/s12964-022-00959-4","article-title":"A review on exosomes application in clinical trials: perspective, questions, and challenges","volume":"20","author":"Rezaie","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cell Commun Signal."},{"key":"B155","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"116733","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lfs.2019.116733","article-title":"Human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells derived-exosomes in diseases treatment","volume":"233","author":"Yaghoubi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Life Sci."},{"key":"B156","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5340","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms25105340","article-title":"Proteomic analysis of umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cell-derived extracellular vesicles: a systematic review","volume":"25","author":"Krishnan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int J Mol Sci."},{"key":"B157","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"511","DOI":"10.1186\/s13287-020-02032-8","article-title":"Comprehensive proteomic analysis of exosomes derived from human bone marrow, adipose tissue, and umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells","volume":"11","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Stem Cell Res Ther"},{"key":"B158","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"242","DOI":"10.1186\/s13287-019-1358-y","article-title":"The functions and clinical application potential of exosomes derived from adipose mesenchymal stem cells: a comprehensive review","volume":"10","author":"Hong","year":"2019","journal-title":"Stem Cell Res Ther"},{"key":"B159","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"701","DOI":"10.1089\/neu.2021.0290","article-title":"Exosomes secreted by hypoxia-pre-conditioned adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells reduce neuronal apoptosis in rats with spinal cord injury","volume":"39","author":"Liang","year":"2022","journal-title":"J Neurotrauma"},{"key":"B160","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4758","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms25094758","article-title":"Exosomes secreted by wharton's jelly-derived mesenchymal stem cells promote the ability of cell proliferation and migration for keratinocyte","volume":"25","author":"Yu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int J Mol Sci."},{"key":"B161","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2717","DOI":"10.4103\/1673-5374.339489","article-title":"Exosomes derived from bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells inhibit neuroinflammation after traumatic brain injury","volume":"17","author":"Wen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Neural Regen Res"},{"key":"B162","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1186\/s12974-022-02393-2","article-title":"Exosomes derived from bone-marrow mesenchymal stem cells alleviate cognitive decline in AD-like mice by improving BDNF-related neuropathology","volume":"19","author":"Liu","year":"2022","journal-title":"J Neuroinflammation."},{"key":"B163","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"16086","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1902513116","article-title":"Exosomes regulate neurogenesis and circuit assembly","volume":"116","author":"Sharma","year":"2019","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci"},{"key":"B164","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"198","DOI":"10.1186\/s13287-023-03409-1","article-title":"Neural stem cell-derived exosomes and regeneration: cell-free therapeutic strategies for traumatic brain injury","volume":"14","author":"Zhong","year":"2023","journal-title":"Stem Cell Res Ther"},{"key":"B165","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3966","DOI":"10.7150\/thno.84133","article-title":"Recent advances in endogenous neural stem\/progenitor cell manipulation for spinal cord injury repair","volume":"13","author":"Li","year":"2023","journal-title":"Theranostics."},{"key":"B166","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e12398","DOI":"10.1002\/jev2.12398","article-title":"Novel method for collecting hippocampal interstitial fluid extracellular vesicles (EV(ISF) ) reveals sex-dependent changes in microglial EV proteome in response to Abeta pathology","volume":"13","author":"Pait","year":"2024","journal-title":"J Extracell Vesicles"},{"key":"B167","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"512","DOI":"10.1096\/fj.201700673r","article-title":"Increased miR-124-3p in microglial exosomes following traumatic brain injury inhibits neuronal inflammation and contributes to neurite outgrowth via their transfer into neurons","volume":"32","author":"Huang","year":"2018","journal-title":"FASEB J."},{"key":"B168","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"856376","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.856376","article-title":"Microglia in the neuroinflammatory pathogenesis of Alzheimer's Disease and related therapeutic targets","volume":"13","author":"Cai","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front Immunol"},{"key":"B169","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"17317","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms242417317","article-title":"Schwann cell-derived exosomal vesicles: a promising therapy for the injured spinal cord","volume":"24","author":"Ghosh","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int J Mol Sci."},{"key":"B170","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-185X.1996.tb00748.x","article-title":"Axonal regeneration","volume":"71","author":"Brecknell","year":"1996","journal-title":"Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc."},{"key":"B171","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6330","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.82.18.6330","article-title":"Transplants of Schwann cell cultures promote axonal regeneration in the adult mammalian brain","volume":"82","author":"Kromer","year":"1985","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci USA."},{"key":"B172","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"9636897241298128","DOI":"10.1177\/09636897241298128","article-title":"Effects of combined intrathecal mesenchymal stem cells and schwann cells transplantation on neuropathic pain in complete spinal cord injury: a phase II randomized active-controlled trial","volume":"34","author":"Akhlaghpasand","year":"2025","journal-title":"Cell Transplant."},{"key":"B173","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"489","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCRESAHA.119.311405","article-title":"Endothelial cell development and its application to regenerative medicine","volume":"125","author":"Qiu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Circ Res."},{"key":"B174","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"102121","DOI":"10.1016\/j.redox.2021.102121","article-title":"Corrigendum to \u201cExosomal miR-155 from M1-polarized macrophages promotes EndoMT and impairs mitochondrial function via activating NF-kappaB signaling pathway in vascular endothelial cells after traumatic spinal cord injury\u201d [Redox Biol","volume":"47","author":"Ge","year":"2021","journal-title":"Redox Biol."},{"key":"B175","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e2203391","DOI":"10.1002\/adhm.202203391","article-title":"Engineering of M2 macrophages-derived exosomes via click chemistry for spinal cord injury repair","volume":"12","author":"Zeng","year":"2023","journal-title":"Adv Healthc Mater"},{"key":"B176","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"678","DOI":"10.1016\/j.stem.2012.05.005","article-title":"Induced pluripotent stem cells: past, present, and future","volume":"10","author":"Yamanaka","year":"2012","journal-title":"Cell Stem Cell."},{"key":"B177","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"20140367","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2014.0367","article-title":"Present and future challenges of induced pluripotent stem cells","volume":"370","author":"Ohnuki","year":"2015","journal-title":"Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci."},{"key":"B178","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"114","DOI":"10.1186\/s13287-024-03714-3","article-title":"Stepwise combined cell transplantation using mesenchymal stem cells and induced pluripotent stem cell-derived motor neuron progenitor cells in spinal cord injury","volume":"15","author":"Kim","year":"2024","journal-title":"Stem Cell Res Ther"},{"key":"B179","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4445","DOI":"10.2174\/0929867329666220221094044","article-title":"Chemical advances in therapeutic application of exosomes and liposomes","volume":"29","author":"Chew","year":"2022","journal-title":"Curr Med Chem"},{"key":"B180","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3954","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms232213954","article-title":"Alzheimer's disease: treatment strategies and their limitations","volume":"23","author":"Passeri","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int J Mol Sci"},{"key":"B181","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e2101202","DOI":"10.1002\/adhm.202101202","article-title":"Functional siRNA delivery by extracellular vesicle-liposome hybrid nanoparticles","volume":"11","author":"Evers","year":"2022","journal-title":"Adv Healthc Mater"},{"key":"B182","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"166","DOI":"10.1186\/s12943-025-02372-0","article-title":"Exosomes in cancer nanomedicine: biotechnological advancements and innovations","volume":"24","author":"Liu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Mol Cancer"},{"key":"B183","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1814","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms26051814","article-title":"Nanotherapy of glioblastoma-where hope grows","volume":"26","author":"Grzegorzewski","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int J Mol Sci"},{"key":"B184","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"9355","DOI":"10.2147\/IJN.S281890","article-title":"Advances in exosome-based drug delivery and tumor targeting: from tissue distribution to intracellular fate","volume":"15","author":"Shao","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int J Nanomedicine."},{"key":"B185","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"673286","DOI":"10.3389\/fgene.2021.673286","article-title":"Nanoparticle delivery of CRISPR\/Cas9 for genome editing","volume":"12","author":"Duan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front Genet"},{"key":"B186","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4983","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apsb.2023.08.022","article-title":"Development of exosome membrane materials-fused microbubbles for enhanced stability and efficient drug delivery of ultrasound contrast agent","volume":"13","author":"Jang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Acta Pharm Sin B."},{"key":"B187","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"678","DOI":"10.1016\/j.semcancer.2022.04.005","article-title":"Exosome-based nanomedicine for cancer treatment by targeting inflammatory pathways: current status and future perspectives","volume":"86","author":"Ansari","year":"2022","journal-title":"Semin Cancer Biol"},{"key":"B188","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jconrel.2018.10.004","article-title":"Recent progress of drug nanoformulations targeting to brain","volume":"291","author":"Khan","year":"2018","journal-title":"J Control Release."},{"key":"B189","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bioactmat.2024.04.007","article-title":"Hydrogel-exosome system in tissue engineering: A promising therapeutic strategy","volume":"38","author":"Fan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Bioact Mater"},{"key":"B190","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101250","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mtbio.2024.101250","article-title":"An injectable decellularized extracellular matrix hydrogel with cortical neuron-derived exosomes enhances tissue repair following traumatic spinal cord injury","volume":"28","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Mater Today Bio"},{"key":"B191","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"115828","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2023.115828","article-title":"Exosome-tuned MOF signal amplifier boosting tumor exosome phenotyping with high-affinity nanostars","volume":"245","author":"Qin","year":"2024","journal-title":"Biosens Bioelectron"},{"key":"B192","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1586","DOI":"10.1039\/D4TB02465F","article-title":"Emerging biosensing platforms based on metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) for detection of exosomes as diagnostic cancer biomarkers: case study for the role of the MOFs","volume":"13","author":"Mansouri","year":"2025","journal-title":"J Mater Chem B."},{"key":"B193","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e113590","DOI":"10.15252\/embj.2023113590","article-title":"Extracellular vesicles and co-isolated endogenous retroviruses from murine cancer cells differentially affect dendritic cells","volume":"42","author":"Cocozza","year":"2023","journal-title":"Embo J."},{"key":"B194","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2732","DOI":"10.1182\/blood-2008-05-158642","article-title":"Capture and transfer of HIV-1 particles by mature dendritic cells converges with the exosome-dissemination pathway","volume":"113","author":"Izquierdo-Useros","year":"2009","journal-title":"Blood."}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Neurology"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fneur.2025.1645457\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,13]],"date-time":"2025-10-13T04:17:39Z","timestamp":1760329059000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fneur.2025.1645457\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,13]]},"references-count":194,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fneur.2025.1645457"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fneur.2025.1645457","relation":{},"ISSN":["1664-2295"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1664-2295","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,13]]},"article-number":"1645457"}}