{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,6]],"date-time":"2026-11-06T00:21:18Z","timestamp":1793924478907,"version":"4.8.0"},"reference-count":63,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,21]],"date-time":"2026-04-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1776729600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Neurol."],"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Bickerstaff Brainstem Encephalitis (BBE) is a rare, post-infectious autoimmune disorder characterized by ophthalmoplegia, ataxia, and altered consciousness. Its significant clinical and serological overlap with Miller Fisher syndrome (MFS) and Guillain-Barr\u00e9 syndrome (GBS) creates diagnostic challenges, particularly in atypical or seronegative presentations. These conditions are collectively understood as components of the anti-GQ1b antibody syndrome, a spectrum of neuro-immune disorders.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Aims<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>This review provides a clinically focused, integrative synthesis of the anti-GQ1b antibody spectrum, with an emphasis on BBE. We aim to clarify the underlying pathophysiology, delineate the range of clinical phenotypes, provide a structured framework for diagnosis that acknowledges the limitations of ancillary testing, and summarize current evidence for therapeutic strategies.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Synthesis of evidence<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Pathogenesis is primarily driven by anti-GQ1b IgG antibodies, generated following infection via molecular mimicry, which trigger complement-mediated damage to ganglioside-rich neural structures. The clinical presentation ranges from purely peripheral deficits (MFS) to severe central nervous system dysfunction (BBE), with frequent BBE-GBS overlap syndromes. Diagnosis hinges on clinical recognition, supported by serology, with neuroimaging serving a crucial role in excluding mimics. Approximately one-third of clinically defined BBE cases are seronegative, suggesting alternative mechanisms. Prompt immunotherapy with intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIg) or plasma exchange is the cornerstone of management, extrapolated from GBS trials, while evidence for corticosteroids remains limited.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>A structured, spectrum-based perspective remains essential for clinicians navigating the diagnostic complexities of the anti-GQ1b antibody syndromes. This updated synthesis is intended to enhance diagnostic accuracy, guide therapeutic reasoning across the full range of phenotypes, and highlight key unresolved questions to inform a future research agenda.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2026.1763283","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,21]],"date-time":"2026-04-21T04:22:36Z","timestamp":1776745356000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["A unified spectrum model for the anti-GQ1b antibody syndromes: from pathophysiology to a new diagnostic framework"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Khalil","family":"El Abdi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy of Rabat, Mohammed V University","place":["Rabat, Morocco"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fazeela","family":"Bibi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Jinnah Medical and Dental College","place":["Karachi, Pakistan"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Muhammad","family":"Ibrahim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Bannu Medical College","place":["Bannu, Pakistan"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kanza","family":"Ahmed","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"United Medical and Dental College","place":["Karachi, Pakistan"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Suraksha","family":"Nagdev","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Shaheed Mohtarma Benazir Bhutto Medical University","place":["Larkana, Pakistan"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zulekhan","family":"Bibi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Changsha Medical University","place":["Changsha, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bilal","family":"Aslam","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Lahore","place":["Lahore, Pakistan"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Vohra Maham","family":"Hassan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Jinnah Medical and Dental College","place":["Karachi, Pakistan"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Muhammad Sarim Azad","family":"Khan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Combined Military Hospital, Lahore Medical College","place":["Lahore, Pakistan"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Asghar","family":"Shah","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Khyber Teaching Hospital","place":["Peshawar, Pakistan"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Muhammad Saad","family":"Sammi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"United Medical and Dental College","place":["Karachi, Pakistan"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Abdullah","family":"Khan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Shenyang Medical College","place":["Shenyang, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hania","family":"Imran","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Wah Medical College","place":["Wah Cantt, Pakistan"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Said Hamid","family":"Sadat","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Kabul University of Medical Sciences Abu Ali Ibn Sina","place":["Kabul, Afghanistan"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.2.4723.77","article-title":"Mesencephalitis and rhombencephalitis","volume":"2","author":"Bickerstaff","year":"1951","journal-title":"Br Med J"},{"key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1387505","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2024.1387505","article-title":"Bickerstaff encephalitis in childhood: a review of 74 cases in the literature from 1951 to today","volume":"15","author":"Giaccari","year":"2024","journal-title":"Front Neurol"},{"key":"ref3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1184","DOI":"10.1136\/jnnp-2013-305239","article-title":"Bickerstaff brainstem encephalitis: more common than we think?","volume":"84","author":"Kuwabara","year":"2013","journal-title":"J Neurol Neurosurg 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