{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,24]],"date-time":"2026-09-24T14:03:05Z","timestamp":1790258585364,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":101,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,24]],"date-time":"2026-09-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790208000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Neurol."],"abstract":"<jats:p>Quantitative susceptibility mapping (QSM) measures net tissue magnetic susceptibility, which can conceal coexisting contributions of opposite sign. This is relevant to the thalamus, where nuclei differ in cellular composition, myelinated fibers, and susceptibility contrast. This narrative review evaluates what QSM and magnetic susceptibility source separation, including \u03c7-separation, currently establish about thalamic alterations in aging and neurological disease. The synthesis prioritizes human thalamic evidence and distinguishes it from methodological validation, findings outside the thalamus, and animal experiments. We use paramagnetic component susceptibility (PCS) and diamagnetic component susceptibility (DCS) as the principal notation, with PCS nonnegative and DCS nonpositive. These model-derived components describe magnetic behavior and do not independently identify iron, myelin, calcium, amyloid, or tau. Reduced thalamic bulk susceptibility is repeatedly reported in multiple sclerosis, whereas findings in Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease are less consistent. Differences in acquisition, referencing, segmentation, cohort composition, and treatment of atrophy affect interpretation, although methodological variability does not explain every disagreement. Source separation can provide information concealed by net susceptibility, but depends on relaxation modeling, acquisition conditions, and reconstruction assumptions. Evidence for thalamic protein mapping, calcification of characterization, and treatment monitoring remains limited or indirect. PCS and DCS are research measurements with potential biological interpretability; standardized acquisition and processing, independent tissue validation, longitudinal replication, and clinically useful decision thresholds are required before they can be regarded as validated clinical biomarkers.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2026.1878540","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,24]],"date-time":"2026-09-24T13:32:27Z","timestamp":1790256747000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Thalamic quantitative susceptibility mapping and susceptibility source separation: a critical narrative review of evidence and interpretation"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Sadegh","family":"Ghaderi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University","place":["Montreal, QC, Canada"]},{"name":"McConnell Brain Imaging Centre, Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University","place":["Montreal, QC, Canada"]},{"name":"Ludmer Centre for Neuroinformatics and Mental Health","place":["Montreal, QC, Canada"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Maria Agnese","family":"Pirozzi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Advanced Medical and Surgical Sciences, MRI Research Center (DAMSS), University of Campania \u201cLuigi Vanvitelli\u201d","place":["Naples, Italy"]},{"name":"Neurology Unit, First Division of Neurology and Neurophysiopathology, AOU University of Campania \u201cLuigi Vanvitelli\u201d","place":["Naples, Italy"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Minoo","family":"Sharbafshaaer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Advanced Medical and Surgical Sciences, MRI Research Center (DAMSS), University of Campania \u201cLuigi Vanvitelli\u201d","place":["Naples, Italy"]},{"name":"Neurology Unit, First Division of Neurology and Neurophysiopathology, AOU University of Campania \u201cLuigi Vanvitelli\u201d","place":["Naples, Italy"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Francesca","family":"Trojsi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Advanced Medical and Surgical Sciences, MRI Research Center (DAMSS), University of Campania \u201cLuigi Vanvitelli\u201d","place":["Naples, Italy"]},{"name":"Neurology Unit, First Division of Neurology and Neurophysiopathology, AOU University of Campania \u201cLuigi Vanvitelli\u201d","place":["Naples, Italy"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sana","family":"Mohammadi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Sciences, School of Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences","place":["Tehran, Iran"]},{"name":"School of Medicine, Hamadan University of Medical Sciences","place":["Hamadan, Iran"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Seyed-Mohammad","family":"Fereshtehnejad","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pacific Parkinson's Research Centre (PPRC), Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia","place":["Vancouver, BC, Canada"]},{"name":"Division of Neurology, Faculty of Medicine, University of British Columbia","place":["Vancouver, BC, Canada"]},{"name":"Division of Clinical Geriatrics, Department of Neurobiology, Care Sciences and Society (NVS), Karolinska Institute","place":["Stockholm, Sweden"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"678","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-025-09708-2","article-title":"A probabilistic histological atlas of the human brain for MRI segmentation","volume":"648","author":"Casamitjana","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nature."},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8117","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.22-18-08117.2002","article-title":"Thalamic relay nuclei of the basal ganglia form both reciprocal and nonreciprocal cortical connections, linking multiple frontal cortical areas","volume":"22","author":"McFarland","year":"2002","journal-title":"J Neurosci."},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"314","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2018.08.012","article-title":"A probabilistic atlas of the human thalamic nuclei combining ex vivo MRI and histology","volume":"183","author":"Iglesias","year":"2018","journal-title":"Neuroimage."},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"791300","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2022.791300","article-title":"Beyond the motor cortex: thalamic iron deposition accounts for disease severity in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis","volume":"13","author":"Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front Neurol."},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1002\/jmri.29698","article-title":"Thalamic magnetic susceptibility (\u03c7) alterations in neurodegenerative diseases: a systematic review and meta-analysis of quantitative susceptibility mapping studies","volume":"62","author":"Ghaderi","year":"2025","journal-title":"J Magn Reson Imaging."},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"459","DOI":"10.1111\/jon.12841","article-title":"Susceptibility-weighted imaging in neurodegenerative disorders: a review","volume":"31","author":"Sotoudeh","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Neuroimaging."},{"key":"B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"473","DOI":"10.3390\/bioengineering12050473","article-title":"Susceptibility-weighted imaging (SWI): technical aspects and applications in brain MRI for neurodegenerative disorders","volume":"12","author":"Vaccarino","year":"2025","journal-title":"Bioeng Basel."},{"key":"B8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1002\/mrm.25358","article-title":"Quantitative susceptibility mapping (QSM): decoding MRI data for a tissue magnetic biomarker","volume":"73","author":"Wang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Magn Reson Med."},{"key":"B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"118371","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2021.118371","article-title":"\u03c7-separation: magnetic susceptibility source separation toward iron and myelin mapping in the brain","volume":"240","author":"Shin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neuroimage."},{"key":"B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"272","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2019.03.021","article-title":"Thalamus optimized multi atlas segmentation (THOMAS): fast, fully automated segmentation of thalamic nuclei from structural MRI","volume":"194","author":"Su","year":"2019","journal-title":"Neuroimage."},{"key":"B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.18112\/openneuro.ds005422.v1.0.1","article-title":"NextBrain Data Extension [dataset]","author":"Iglesias","year":"2024","journal-title":"OpenNeuro"},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e5226","DOI":"10.1002\/nbm.5226","article-title":"A human brain atlas of \u03c7-separation for normative iron and myelin distributions","volume":"37","author":"Min","year":"2024","journal-title":"NMR Biomed."},{"key":"B13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1834","DOI":"10.1002\/mrm.30006","article-title":"Recommended implementation of quantitative susceptibility mapping for clinical research in the brain: a consensus of the ISMRM electro-magnetic tissue properties study group","volume":"91","author":"Bilgic","year":"2024","journal-title":"Magn Reson Med."},{"key":"B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e3601","DOI":"10.1002\/nbm.3601","article-title":"An illustrated comparison of processing methods for MR phase imaging and QSM: combining array coil signals and phase unwrapping","volume":"30","author":"Robinson","year":"2017","journal-title":"NMR Biomed."},{"key":"B15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1002\/nbm.3056","article-title":"Integrated Laplacian-based phase unwrapping and background phase removal for quantitative susceptibility mapping","volume":"27","author":"Li","year":"2014","journal-title":"NMR Biomed."},{"key":"B16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1347","DOI":"10.1109\/TMI.2018.2884093","article-title":"A Speedy region-growing algorithm for unwrapping estimated phase","volume":"38","author":"Karsa","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Trans Med Imaging."},{"key":"B17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2294","DOI":"10.1002\/mrm.28563","article-title":"Phase unwrapping with a rapid opensource minimum spanning tree algorithm (ROMEO)","volume":"85","author":"Dymerska","year":"2021","journal-title":"Magn Reson Med."},{"key":"B18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1129","DOI":"10.1002\/nbm.1670","article-title":"A novel background field removal method for MRI using projection onto dipole fields (PDF)","volume":"24","author":"Liu","year":"2011","journal-title":"NMR Biomed."},{"key":"B19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"312","DOI":"10.1002\/nbm.3064","article-title":"Background field removal by solving the Laplacian boundary value problem","volume":"27","author":"Zhou","year":"2014","journal-title":"NMR Biomed."},{"key":"B20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2789","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2010.10.070","article-title":"Quantitative imaging of intrinsic magnetic tissue properties using MRI signal phase: an approach to in vivo brain iron metabolism?","volume":"54","author":"Schweser","year":"2011","journal-title":"Neuroimage."},{"key":"B21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1151","DOI":"10.1002\/mrm.24765","article-title":"Background field removal using spherical mean value filtering and Tikhonov regularization","volume":"71","author":"Sun","year":"2014","journal-title":"Magn Reson Med."},{"key":"B22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1292","DOI":"10.1002\/mrm.22334","article-title":"Susceptibility mapping in the human brain using threshold-based k-space division","volume":"63","author":"Wharton","year":"2010","journal-title":"Magn Reson Med."},{"key":"B23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1510","DOI":"10.1002\/mrm.22135","article-title":"Magnetic susceptibility mapping of brain tissue in vivo using MRI phase data","volume":"62","author":"Shmueli","year":"2009","journal-title":"Magn Reson Med."},{"key":"B24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2560","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2011.08.082","article-title":"Morphology enabled dipole inversion for quantitative susceptibility mapping using structural consistency between the magnitude image and the susceptibility map","volume":"59","author":"Liu","year":"2012","journal-title":"Neuroimage."},{"key":"B25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"777","DOI":"10.1002\/mrm.22816","article-title":"Morphology enabled dipole inversion (MEDI) from a single-angle acquisition: comparison with COSMOS in human brain imaging","volume":"66","author":"Liu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Magn Reson Med."},{"key":"B26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2014.12.043","article-title":"A method for estimating and removing streaking artifacts in quantitative susceptibility mapping","volume":"108","author":"Li","year":"2015","journal-title":"Neuroimage."},{"key":"B27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1294","DOI":"10.1002\/nbm.3383","article-title":"Streaking artifact reduction for quantitative susceptibility mapping of sources with large dynamic range","volume":"28","author":"Wei","year":"2015","journal-title":"NMR Biomed."},{"key":"B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2018.06.030","article-title":"Quantitative susceptibility mapping using deep neural network: QSMnet","volume":"179","author":"Yoon","year":"2018","journal-title":"Neuroimage."},{"key":"B29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"118376","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2021.118376","article-title":"MoDL-QSM: model-based deep learning for quantitative susceptibility mapping","volume":"240","author":"Feng","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neuroimage."},{"key":"B30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"103173","DOI":"10.1016\/j.media.2024.103173","article-title":"A subject-specific unsupervised deep learning method for quantitative susceptibility mapping using implicit neural representation","volume":"95","author":"Zhang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Med Image Anal."},{"key":"B31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"196","DOI":"10.1002\/mrm.21828","article-title":"Calculation of susceptibility through multiple orientation sampling (COSMOS): a method for conditioning the inverse problem from measured magnetic field map to susceptibility source image in MRI","volume":"61","author":"Liu","year":"2009","journal-title":"Magn Reson Med."},{"key":"B32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2795","DOI":"10.1002\/mrm.26946","article-title":"MEDI+0: Morphology enabled dipole inversion with automatic uniform cerebrospinal fluid zero reference for quantitative susceptibility mapping","volume":"79","author":"Liu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Magn Reson Med."},{"key":"B33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2698","DOI":"10.1002\/hbm.22360","article-title":"Differential developmental trajectories of magnetic susceptibility in human brain gray and white matter over the lifespan","volume":"35","author":"Li","year":"2014","journal-title":"Hum Brain Mapp."},{"key":"B34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"720","DOI":"10.1111\/jon.13234","article-title":"Reliability of quantitative magnetic susceptibility imaging metrics for cerebral cortex and major subcortical structures","volume":"34","author":"Pirozzi","year":"2024","journal-title":"J Neuroimaging."},{"key":"B35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"118477","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2021.118477","article-title":"Decompose quantitative susceptibility mapping (QSM) to sub-voxel diamagnetic and paramagnetic components based on gradient-echo MRI data","volume":"242","author":"Chen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neuroimage."},{"key":"B36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"120676","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2024.120676","article-title":"Quantitative susceptibility mapping for susceptibility source separation with adaptive relaxometric constant estimation (QSM-ARCS) from solely gradient-echo data","volume":"296","author":"Kan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Neuroimage."},{"key":"B37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"120148","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2023.120148","article-title":"APART-QSM: an improved sub-voxel quantitative susceptibility mapping for susceptibility source separation using an iterative data fitting method","volume":"274","author":"Li","year":"2023","journal-title":"Neuroimage."},{"key":"B38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.2463\/mrms.rev.2024-0001","article-title":"So you want to image myelin using MRI: magnetic susceptibility source separation for myelin imaging","volume":"23","author":"Lee","year":"2024","journal-title":"Magn Reson Med Sci."},{"key":"B39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"120357","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2023.120357","article-title":"The diamagnetic component map from quantitative susceptibility mapping (QSM) source separation reveals pathological alteration in Alzheimer's disease-driven neurodegeneration","volume":"280","author":"Ahmed","year":"2023","journal-title":"Neuroimage."},{"key":"B40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"imag_a_00467","DOI":"10.1162\/imag_a_00467","article-title":"Distinguishing microgliosis and tau deposition in the mouse brain using paramagnetic and diamagnetic susceptibility source separation","volume":"3","author":"Joshi","year":"2025","journal-title":"Imaging Neurosci."},{"key":"B41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1152","DOI":"10.1038\/s41597-026-07461-3","article-title":"Multimodal ultra-high-field MRI, clinical, cognitive, and genetic profiles across the ALS\u2013FTD spectrum","volume":"13","author":"Shaw","year":"2026","journal-title":"Sci Data."},{"key":"B42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"852","DOI":"10.1111\/jon.13014","article-title":"Susceptibility source separation from gradient echo data using magnitude decay modeling","volume":"32","author":"Dimov","year":"2022","journal-title":"J Neuroimaging."},{"key":"B43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e70136","DOI":"10.1002\/hbm.70136","volume":"46","author":"Kim","year":"2025","journal-title":"Hum Brain Mapp."},{"key":"B44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e5167","DOI":"10.1002\/nbm.5167","article-title":"Comparison between R2\u2032-based and R2*-based \u03c7-separation methods: a clinical evaluation in individuals with multiple sclerosis","volume":"37","author":"Ji","year":"2024","journal-title":"NMR Biomed."},{"key":"B45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"449","DOI":"10.1212\/CPJ.0000000000000782","article-title":"Mechanisms of calcification in FAHR disease and exposure of potential therapeutic targets","volume":"10","author":"Peters","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neurol Clin Pr."},{"key":"B46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2251","DOI":"10.1007\/s10072-019-03998-x","article-title":"Basal ganglia calcifications (FAHR's syndrome): related conditions and clinical features","volume":"40","author":"Donzuso","year":"2019","journal-title":"Neurol Sci."},{"key":"B47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"607705","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2020.607705","article-title":"Iron content in deep gray matter as a function of age using quantitative susceptibility mapping: a multicenter study","volume":"14","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front Neurosci."},{"key":"B48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3906","DOI":"10.21037\/qims-21-87","article-title":"Age-related magnetic susceptibility changes in deep grey matter and cerebral cortex of normal young and middle-aged adults depicted by whole brain analysis","volume":"11","author":"Burgetova","year":"2021","journal-title":"Quant Imaging Med Surg."},{"key":"B49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1600","DOI":"10.1002\/jmri.26579","article-title":"Spatiotemporal variations of magnetic susceptibility in the deep gray matter nuclei from 1 month to 6 years: a quantitative susceptibility mapping study","volume":"49","author":"Ning","year":"2019","journal-title":"J Magn Reson Imaging."},{"key":"B50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4488","DOI":"10.1007\/s00330-022-09267-4","article-title":"Evaluation of deep gray matter for early brain development using quantitative susceptibility mapping","volume":"33","author":"Otani","year":"2023","journal-title":"Eur Radiol."},{"key":"B51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"611891","DOI":"10.3389\/fnagi.2021.611891","article-title":"Iron deposition characteristics of deep gray matter in elderly individuals in the community revealed by quantitative susceptibility mapping and multiple factor analysis","volume":"13","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front Aging Neurosci."},{"key":"B52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1267","DOI":"10.1002\/nbm.3366","article-title":"Hemisphere, gender and age-related effects on iron deposition in deep gray matter revealed by quantitative susceptibility mapping","volume":"28","author":"Gong","year":"2015","journal-title":"NMR Biomed."},{"key":"B53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4597","DOI":"10.1002\/hbm.25569","article-title":"R2* and quantitative susceptibility mapping in deep gray matter of 498 healthy controls from 5 to 90 years","volume":"42","author":"Treit","year":"2021","journal-title":"Hum Brain Mapp."},{"key":"B54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"118872","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2022.118872","article-title":"Charting human subcortical maturation across the adult lifespan with in vivo 7 T MRI","volume":"249","author":"Mileti\u0107","year":"2022","journal-title":"Neuroimage."},{"key":"B55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"380","DOI":"10.3174\/ajnr.A8488","article-title":"Quantitative susceptibility mapping with source separation in normal brain development of newborns","volume":"46","author":"Jang","year":"2025","journal-title":"AJNR Am J Neuroradiol."},{"key":"B56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e70093","DOI":"10.1002\/brb3.70093","article-title":"Quantitative susceptibility mapping values quantification in deep gray matter structures for relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"14","author":"Mohammadi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Brain Behav."},{"key":"B57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e200299","DOI":"10.1212\/NXI.0000000000200299","article-title":"Advanced quantitative MRI unveils microstructural thalamic changes reflecting disease progression in multiple sclerosis","volume":"11","author":"Cagol","year":"2024","journal-title":"Neurol Neuroimmunol Neuroinflamm."},{"key":"B58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"438","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2017.10.063","article-title":"Mapping of thalamic magnetic susceptibility in multiple sclerosis indicates decreasing iron with disease duration: a proposed mechanistic relationship between inflammation and oligodendrocyte vitality","volume":"167","author":"Schweser","year":"2018","journal-title":"Neuroimage."},{"key":"B59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100216","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ynirp.2024.100216","article-title":"Investigating the relationship between thalamic iron concentration and disease severity in secondary progressive multiple sclerosis using quantitative susceptibility mapping: Cross-sectional analysis from the MS-STAT2 randomised controlled trial","volume":"4","author":"Williams","year":"2024","journal-title":"Neuroimage Rep."},{"key":"B60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"103771","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nicl.2025.103771","article-title":"Thalamic iron in multiple sclerosis: waning support for the early-rise late-decline hypothesis","volume":"46","author":"Salman","year":"2025","journal-title":"Neuroimage Clin."},{"key":"B61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"487","DOI":"10.1148\/radiol.2018180136","article-title":"Brain iron at quantitative MRI Is associated with disability in multiple sclerosis","volume":"289","author":"Zivadinov","year":"2018","journal-title":"Radiology."},{"key":"B62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msard.2019.05.028","article-title":"Five year iron changes in relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis deep gray matter compared to healthy controls","volume":"33","author":"Elkady","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mult Scler Relat Disord."},{"key":"B63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1223","DOI":"10.3174\/ajnr.A7093","article-title":"Unraveling deep gray matter atrophy and iron and myelin changes in multiple sclerosis","volume":"42","author":"Pontillo","year":"2021","journal-title":"AJNR Am J Neuroradiol."},{"key":"B64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4007","DOI":"10.1002\/hbm.24227","article-title":"Thalamic white matter in multiple sclerosis: a combined diffusion-tensor imaging and quantitative susceptibility mapping study","volume":"39","author":"Bergsland","year":"2018","journal-title":"Hum Brain Mapp."},{"key":"B65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e220941","DOI":"10.1148\/radiol.220941","volume":"307","author":"Kim","year":"2023","journal-title":"Radiology."},{"key":"B66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e209604","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0000000000209604","article-title":"Quantifying Remyelination using \u03c7-separation in white matter and cortical multiple sclerosis lesions","volume":"103","author":"M\u00fcller","year":"2024","journal-title":"Neurology."},{"key":"B67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1867","DOI":"10.1002\/jmri.29266","article-title":"MR susceptibility separation for quantifying lesion paramagnetic and diamagnetic evolution in relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis","volume":"60","author":"Zhu","year":"2024","journal-title":"J Magn Reson Imaging."},{"key":"B68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"988","DOI":"10.1016\/j.acra.2024.07.031","article-title":"Atrophy-independent and dependent iron and myelin changes in deep gray matter of multiple sclerosis: a longitudinal study using \u03c7-separation imaging","volume":"32","author":"Xie","year":"2025","journal-title":"Acad Radiol."},{"key":"B69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0332478","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0332478","article-title":"Impact of processing and analysis methodology on thalamic susceptibility assessment in multiple sclerosis","volume":"20","author":"Salman","year":"2025","journal-title":"PLoS ONE."},{"key":"B70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1338891","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2024.1338891","article-title":"Iron quantification in basal ganglia: quantitative susceptibility mapping as a potential biomarker for Alzheimer's disease \u2013 a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"18","author":"Ghaderi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Front Neurosci."},{"key":"B71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"439","DOI":"10.3233\/JAD-200843","article-title":"Quantitative study of the changes in cerebral blood flow and iron deposition during progression of alzheimer's disease","volume":"78","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Alzheimers Dis."},{"key":"B72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1849","DOI":"10.1021\/acschemneuro.8b00194","article-title":"Increased iron deposition on brain quantitative susceptibility mapping correlates with decreased cognitive function in alzheimer's disease","volume":"9","author":"Du","year":"2018","journal-title":"ACS Chem Neurosci."},{"key":"B73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"429","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nicl.2017.08.019","article-title":"Quantitative susceptibility mapping to evaluate the early stage of Alzheimer's disease","volume":"16","author":"Kim","year":"2017","journal-title":"Neuroimage Clin."},{"key":"B74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.3389\/fnagi.2017.00081","article-title":"Characterizing brain iron deposition in patients with subcortical vascular mild cognitive impairment using quantitative susceptibility mapping: a potential biomarker","volume":"9","author":"Sun","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front Aging Neurosci."},{"key":"B75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.3174\/ajnr.A8469","article-title":"Alzheimer disease anti-amyloid immunotherapies: imaging recommendations and practice considerations for monitoring of amyloid-related imaging abnormalities","volume":"46","author":"Cogswell","year":"2025","journal-title":"Am J Neuroradiol."},{"key":"B76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3074","DOI":"10.1007\/s00330-023-10283-1","article-title":"Spatiotemporal patterns of brain iron-oxygen metabolism in patients with Parkinson's disease","volume":"34","author":"Yan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Eur Radiol."},{"key":"B77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5297","DOI":"10.1007\/s10072-021-05223-0","article-title":"Extra-basal ganglia iron content and non-motor symptoms in drug-na\u00efve, early Parkinson's disease","volume":"42","author":"Kim","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neurol Sci."},{"key":"B78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/aww278","article-title":"The whole-brain pattern of magnetic susceptibility perturbations in Parkinson's disease","volume":"140","author":"Acosta-Cabronero","year":"2017","journal-title":"Brain."},{"key":"B79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0162460","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0162460","article-title":"Quantitative susceptibility mapping in Parkinson's disease","volume":"11","author":"Langkammer","year":"2016","journal-title":"PLoS ONE."},{"key":"B80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"109394","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejrad.2020.109394","article-title":"Iron deposition in Parkinsonisms: a quantitative susceptibility mapping study in the deep grey matter","volume":"133","author":"Fedeli","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur J Radiol."},{"key":"B81","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4186","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-025-23734-0","article-title":"Magnetic susceptibility components reveal different aspects of neurodegeneration in alpha-synucleinopathies","volume":"15","author":"Kiersnowski","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sci Rep."},{"key":"B82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1080\/21678421.2024.2372648","article-title":"Quantitative susceptibility mapping in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: automatic quantification of the magnetic susceptibility in the subcortical nuclei","volume":"26","author":"Ghaderi","year":"2025","journal-title":"Amyotroph Lateral Scler Front Degener."},{"key":"B83","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1148\/radiol.2018180112","article-title":"Quantitative susceptibility mri to detect brain iron in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis","volume":"289","author":"Acosta-Cabronero","year":"2018","journal-title":"Radiology."},{"key":"B84","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1080\/21678421.2025.2522406","article-title":"Quantitative susceptibility mapping for investigating brain iron deposits in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: correlations with clinical phenotype and disease progression","volume":"27","author":"Pirozzi","year":"2026","journal-title":"Amyotroph Lateral Scler Front Degener."},{"key":"B85","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"554","DOI":"10.1002\/jmri.25777","article-title":"Nuclei-specific deposits of iron and calcium in the rat thalamus after status epilepticus revealed with quantitative susceptibility mapping (QSM)","volume":"47","author":"Aggarwal","year":"2018","journal-title":"J Magn Reson Imaging."},{"key":"B86","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"768","DOI":"10.3174\/ajnr.A7894","article-title":"Investigation of brain iron in Niemann-Pick Type C: a 7T quantitative susceptibility mapping study","volume":"44","author":"Ravanfar","year":"2023","journal-title":"AJNR Am J Neuroradiol."},{"key":"B87","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2012.09.055","article-title":"Toward in vivo histology: a comparison of quantitative susceptibility mapping (QSM) with magnitude-, phase-, and R2*-imaging at ultra-high magnetic field strength","volume":"65","author":"Deistung","year":"2013","journal-title":"Neuroimage."},{"key":"B88","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1111\/jon.12669","article-title":"Quantitative susceptibility mapping: MRI at 7T versus 3T","volume":"30","author":"Spincemaille","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Neuroimaging."},{"key":"B89","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"121060","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2025.121060","article-title":"In-vivo high-resolution \u03c7-separation at 7T","volume":"308","author":"Kim","year":"2025","journal-title":"Neuroimage."},{"key":"B90","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"447","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2019.00447","article-title":"Imaging the centromedian thalamic nucleus using quantitative susceptibility mapping","volume":"13","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front Hum Neurosci."},{"key":"B91","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"CASE23709","DOI":"10.3171\/CASE23709","article-title":"Quantitative susceptibility mapping and a nonlinearly transformed atlas for targeting the ventral intermediate nucleus of the thalamus in a patient with tremor and thalamic hypertrophy: illustrative case","volume":"7","author":"Ohtsuki","year":"2024","journal-title":"J Neurosurg Case Lessons."},{"key":"B92","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"360","DOI":"10.3171\/2018.3.JNS172145","article-title":"High-resolution QSM for functional and structural depiction of subthalamic nuclei in DBS presurgical mapping","volume":"131","author":"Dimov","year":"2019","journal-title":"J Neurosurg."},{"key":"B93","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"412","DOI":"10.1093\/ons\/opx131","article-title":"Utilization of quantitative susceptibility mapping for direct targeting of the subthalamic nucleus during deep brain stimulation surgery","volume":"14","author":"Rasouli","year":"2018","journal-title":"Oper Neurosurg Hagerstown."},{"key":"B94","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e70051","DOI":"10.1002\/nbm.70051","article-title":"In vivo characterization of magnetic inclusions in the subcortex from nonexponential transverse relaxation decay","volume":"38","author":"Oliveira","year":"2025","journal-title":"NMR Biomed."},{"key":"B95","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"749","DOI":"10.1002\/mrm.1910320610","article-title":"Theory of NMR signal behavior in magnetically inhomogeneous tissues: the static dephasing regime","volume":"32","author":"Yablonskiy","year":"1994","journal-title":"Magn Reson Med."},{"key":"B96","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2455","DOI":"10.1002\/mrm.26208","article-title":"van Zijl P. B0-orientation dependent magnetic susceptibility-induced white matter contrast in the human brainstem at 117T","volume":"75","author":"Aggarwal","year":"2016","journal-title":"Magn Reson Med"},{"key":"B97","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1471","DOI":"10.1002\/mrm.22482","article-title":"Susceptibility tensor imaging","volume":"63","author":"Liu","year":"2010","journal-title":"Magn Reson Med."},{"key":"B98","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e3540","DOI":"10.1002\/nbm.3540","article-title":"Susceptibility tensor imaging (STI) of the brain","volume":"30","author":"Li","year":"2017","journal-title":"NMR Biomed."},{"key":"B99","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"102829","DOI":"10.1016\/j.media.2023.102829","article-title":"DeepSTI: towards tensor reconstruction using fewer orientations in susceptibility tensor imaging","volume":"87","author":"Fang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Med Image Anal."},{"key":"B100","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1289","DOI":"10.1002\/mrm.29048","article-title":"QSMxT: robust masking and artifact reduction for quantitative susceptibility mapping","volume":"87","author":"Stewart","year":"2022","journal-title":"Magn Reson Med."},{"key":"B101","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"843","DOI":"10.1002\/mrm.25137","article-title":"An algorithm for fast mono-exponential fitting based on auto-regression on linear operations (ARLO) of data","volume":"73","author":"Pei","year":"2015","journal-title":"Magn Reson Med Off J Soc Magn Reson Med Soc Magn Reson Med."}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Neurology"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fneur.2026.1878540\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,24]],"date-time":"2026-09-24T13:32:28Z","timestamp":1790256748000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fneur.2026.1878540\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,24]]},"references-count":101,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fneur.2026.1878540"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fneur.2026.1878540","relation":{},"ISSN":["1664-2295"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1664-2295","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,24]]},"article-number":"1878540"}}