{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,23]],"date-time":"2026-10-23T21:44:27Z","timestamp":1792791867906,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":139,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,30]],"date-time":"2022-06-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1656547200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003246","name":"Nederlandse Organisatie voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003246","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Hum. Neurosci."],"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Introduction<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Cerebral visual impairment (CVI) is an important cause of visual impairment in western countries. Perinatal hypoxic-ischemic damage is the most frequent cause of CVI but CVI can also be the result of a genetic disorder. The majority of children with CVI have cerebral palsy and\/or developmental delay. Early diagnosis is crucial; however, there is a need for consensus on evidence based diagnostic tools and referral criteria. The aim of this study is to develop guidelines for diagnosis and referral in CVI according to the grade method.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Patients and Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>We developed the guidelines according to the GRADE method 5 searches on CVI (children, developmental age \u2264 18 years) were performed in the databases Medline, Embase, and Psychinfo, each with a distinct topic.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Based on evidence articles were selected on five topics: 1. Medical history and CVI-questionnaires 23 (out of 1,007). 2. Ophthalmological and orthoptic assessment 37 (out of 816). 3. Neuropsychological assessment 5 (out of 716). 4. Neuroradiological evaluation and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) 9 (out of 723). 5. Genetic assessment 5 (out of 458).<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      In medical history taking, prematurity low birth weight and APGAR (Appearance, Pulse, Grimace, Activity, Respiration) Scores (&amp;lt;5) are important. Different questionnaires are advised for children under the age of 3 years, older children and for specific risk groups (extremely preterm). In ophthalmological examination, eye movements, specially saccades, accommodation, crowding, contrast sensitivity and visual fields should be evaluated. OCT can show objective signs of\n                      <jats:italic>trans<\/jats:italic>\n                      -synaptic degeneration and abnormalities in fixation and saccades can be measured with eye tracking. Screening of visual perceptive functioning is recommended and can be directive for further assessment. MRI findings in CVI in Cerebral Palsy can be structured in five groups: Brain maldevelopment, white and gray matter lesions, postnatal lesions and a normal MRI. In children with CVI and periventricular leukomalacia, brain lesion severity correlates with visual function impairment. A differentiation can be made between cortical and subcortical damage and related visual function impairment. Additional assessments (neurological or genetic) can be necessary to complete the diagnosis of CVI and\/or to reveal the etiology.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2022.727565","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,30]],"date-time":"2022-06-30T06:24:45Z","timestamp":1656570285000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":64,"title":["The Multidisciplinary Guidelines for Diagnosis and Referral in Cerebral Visual Impairment"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Frouke N.","family":"Boonstra","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dani\u00eblle G. M.","family":"Bosch","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Christiaan J. A.","family":"Geldof","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Catharina","family":"Stellingwerf","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Giorgio","family":"Porro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1854","DOI":"10.3109\/09638288.2010.549896","article-title":"Seeing the gaps: a systematic review of visual perception tools for children with hemiplegia.","volume":"33","author":"Auld","year":"2011","journal-title":"Disabil. Rehabil."},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3963","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.17-23167","article-title":"Symbol Discrimination Speed in Children With Visual Impairments.","volume":"59","author":"Barsingerhorn","year":"2018","journal-title":"Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"616","DOI":"10.1111\/aos.14011","article-title":"Saccade latencies during a preferential looking task and objective scoring of grating acuity in children with and without visual impairments.","volume":"97","author":"Barsingerhorn","year":"2019","journal-title":"Acta ophthalmologica."},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"451","DOI":"10.1080\/09297049.2017.1283396","article-title":"Visuospatial processing in adolescents with critical congenital heart disease: Organization, integration, and implications for academic achievement.","volume":"24","author":"Bean Jaworski","year":"2018","journal-title":"Child Neuropsychol."},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"995","DOI":"10.1080\/09297049.2021.1915265","article-title":"[Formula: see text] Quantifying visuoperceptual profiles of children with cerebral visual impairment.","volume":"27","author":"Ben Itzhak","year":"","journal-title":"Child Neuropsychol."},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"969","DOI":"10.1111\/dmcn.14448","article-title":"Visuoperceptual profiles of children using the Flemish cerebral visual impairment questionnaire.","volume":"62","author":"Ben Itzhak","year":"2020","journal-title":"Dev. Med Child Neurol."},{"key":"B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2019.10.011","article-title":"Neuroplasticity in cerebral visual impairment (CVI): Assessing functional vision and the neurophysiological correlates of dorsal stream dysfunction.","volume":"108","author":"Bennett","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev."},{"key":"B8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1755-3768.2011.02205.x","article-title":"Changes in causes of low vision between 1988 and 2009 in a Dutch population of children","volume":"90","author":"Boonstra","year":"2012","journal-title":"Acta Ophthalmol"},{"key":"B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1149","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ridd.2010.08.001","article-title":"Cerebral Visual Impairment: which perceptive visual dysfunctions can be expected in children with brain damage? A systematic review.","volume":"31","author":"Boot","year":"2010","journal-title":"Res. Dev. Disabil."},{"key":"B10","author":"Bosch","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cerebral Visual Impairment from Clinic to Genetics."},{"key":"B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"660","DOI":"10.1038\/ejhg.2015.186","article-title":"Novel genetic causes for cerebral visual impairment.","volume":"24","author":"Bosch","year":"2016","journal-title":"Eur. J. Hum. Genet."},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"677","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejpn.2014.05.002","article-title":"Chromosomal aberrations in cerebral visual impairment.","volume":"18","author":"Bosch","year":"","journal-title":"Eur. J. Paediatr. Neurol."},{"key":"B13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2415-14-59","article-title":"Low vision due to cerebral visual impairment: differentiating between acquired and genetic causes.","volume":"14","author":"Bosch","year":"","journal-title":"BMC Ophthalmol."},{"key":"B14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E839","DOI":"10.1503\/cmaj.090449","article-title":"AGREE II: advancing guideline development, reporting and evaluation in health care.","volume":"182","author":"Brouwers","year":"2010","journal-title":"CMAJ."},{"key":"B15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1007\/s10633-013-9423-9","article-title":"Contributing factors to VEP grating acuity deficit and inter-ocular acuity difference in children with cerebral visual impairment.","volume":"128","author":"Cavascan","year":"2014","journal-title":"Doc. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"B16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"369","DOI":"10.5014\/ajot.59.4.369","article-title":"Reliability and validity of the Test of Visual-Perceptual Skills (Non-Motor)- -Revised for Chinese preschoolers.","volume":"59","author":"Chan","year":"2005","journal-title":"Am. J. Occup. Ther."},{"key":"B17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2021.711873","article-title":"Higher Visual Function Deficits in Children With Cerebral Visual Impairment and Good Visual Acuity.","volume":"15","author":"Chandna","year":"","journal-title":"Front. Hum. Neurosci."},{"key":"B18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.62.14.12","article-title":"Motion Processing Deficits in Children With Cerebral Visual Impairment and Good Visual Acuity.","volume":"62","author":"Chandna","year":"","journal-title":"Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"B19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaapos.2021.07.008","article-title":"Validity and reliability of eye tracking for visual acuity assessment in children with cortical visual impairment.","volume":"25","author":"Chang","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. AAPOS."},{"key":"B20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.3126\/jnps.v32i2.5534","article-title":"Ocular manifestations of meningitis in children.","volume":"32","author":"Chaudhary","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Nepal Paediatr. Soc."},{"key":"B21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"575","DOI":"10.1016\/S0002-9394(14)74485-X","article-title":"Development of object vision in infants with permanent cortical visual impairment.","volume":"114","author":"Chen","year":"1992","journal-title":"Am. J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"B22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1300\/j006v25n04_03","article-title":"The developmental test of visual perception-2 normative study on the visual-perceptual function for children in Hong Kong.","volume":"25","author":"Cheung","year":"2005","journal-title":"Phys. Occup. Ther. Pediatr."},{"key":"B23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"120","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-8749.1996.tb12083.x","article-title":"Correlation between cerebral visual impairment and magnetic resonance imaging in children with neonatal encephalopathy.","volume":"38","author":"Cioni","year":"1996","journal-title":"Dev. Med. Child Neurol."},{"key":"B24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"398","DOI":"10.1038\/eye.1997.84","article-title":"The prognostic value of flash visual evoked potentials in the assessment of non-ocular visual impairment in infancy.","author":"Clarke","year":"1997","journal-title":"Eye (Lond)."},{"key":"B25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1067\/mpa.2000.103870","article-title":"Ophthalmologic findings in children with congenital cytomegalovirus infection.","volume":"4","author":"Coats","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. AAPOS."},{"key":"B26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1240","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(13)61835-8","article-title":"Cerebral palsy.","volume":"383","author":"Colver","year":"2014","journal-title":"Lancet."},{"key":"B27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-85037-4","article-title":"Differences between children with Down syndrome and typically developing children in adaptive behaviour, executive functions and visual acuity.","volume":"11","author":"de Weger","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"378","DOI":"10.1111\/aos.13944","article-title":"Effects of bifocals on visual acuity in children with Down syndrome: a randomized controlled trial.","volume":"97","author":"de Weger","year":"2019","journal-title":"Acta Ophthalmologica."},{"key":"B29","article-title":"Structured clinical history-taking for cognitive and perceptual visual dysfunction and for profound visual disabilities due to damage to the brain in children.","author":"Dutton","year":"2010","journal-title":"Clin. Dev. Med."},{"key":"B30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"302","DOI":"10.1038\/eye.1996.64","article-title":"Cortical visual dysfunction in children: a clinical study.","author":"Dutton","year":"1996","journal-title":"Eye (Lond)."},{"key":"B31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1111\/dmcn.12687","article-title":"Visual-perceptual impairment in children with cerebral palsy: a systematic review.","volume":"57","author":"Ego","year":"2015","journal-title":"Dev. Med. Child Neurol."},{"key":"B32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"974","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-8749.2009.03272.x","article-title":"Cognitive visual dysfunctions in preterm children with periventricular leukomalacia.","volume":"51","author":"Fazzi","year":"2009","journal-title":"Dev. Med. Child Neurol."},{"key":"B33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"730","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-8749.2012.04324.x","article-title":"Neuro-ophthalmological disorders in cerebral palsy: ophthalmological, oculomotor, and visual aspects.","volume":"54","author":"Fazzi","year":"2012","journal-title":"Dev. Med. Child Neurol."},{"key":"B34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"294","DOI":"10.1177\/08830738070220030801","article-title":"Spectrum of visual disorders in children with cerebral visual impairment.","volume":"22","author":"Fazzi","year":"2007","journal-title":"J Child Neurol."},{"key":"B35","year":"2015","journal-title":"Aanbeveling Landelijke Neonatale Follow-up-NICU Follow-up [Internet]."},{"key":"B36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"493","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2214.2003.00369.x","article-title":"Visual impairment in childhood: insights from a community-based survey.","volume":"29","author":"Flanagan","year":"2003","journal-title":"Child Care Health Dev."},{"key":"B37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/1472-6947-8-38","article-title":"Factors influencing the implementation of clinical guidelines for health care professionals: a systematic meta-review.","volume":"8","author":"Francke","year":"2008","journal-title":"BMC Med. Inform. Decis. Mak."},{"key":"B38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-8749.1992.tb11434.x","article-title":"Flash and pattern-reversal visual evoked potential abnormalities in infants and children with cerebral blindness.","volume":"34","author":"Frank","year":"1992","journal-title":"Dev. Med. Child Neurol."},{"key":"B39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"635","DOI":"10.1016\/j.earlhumdev.2014.08.002","article-title":"Validation of the Preverbal Visual Assessment (PreViAs) questionnaire.","volume":"90","author":"Garcia-Ormaechea","year":"2014","journal-title":"Early Hum Dev."},{"key":"B40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"190","DOI":"10.1038\/pr.2015.83","article-title":"A functional approach to cerebral visual impairments in very preterm\/very-low-birth-weight children.","volume":"78","author":"Geldof","year":"2015","journal-title":"Pediatr Res."},{"key":"B41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7730","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.12-9775","article-title":"Spatial contrast sensitivity vision loss in children with cortical visual impairment.","volume":"53","author":"Good","year":"2012","journal-title":"Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"B42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1017\/s0012162201000093","article-title":"Recent advances in cortical visual impairment.","volume":"43","author":"Good","year":"2001","journal-title":"Dev. Med. Child Neurol."},{"key":"B43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0214290","article-title":"Towards population screening for cerebral visual impairment: validity of the five questions and the cvi questionnaire.","volume":"14","author":"Gorrie","year":"2019","journal-title":"PLoS One."},{"key":"B44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brainresbull.2010.02.016","article-title":"Vision in developmental disorders: is there a dorsal stream deficit?","volume":"82","author":"Grinter","year":"2010","journal-title":"Brain Res. bull."},{"key":"B45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"924","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.39489.470347.AD","article-title":"GRADE: an emerging consensus on rating quality of evidence and strength of recommendations","volume":"336","author":"Guyatt","year":"2008","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"B46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"696","DOI":"10.1136\/bjo.2009.169284","article-title":"Ophthalmic, clinical and visual electrophysiological findings in children born to mothers prescribed substitute methadone in pregnancy.","volume":"94","author":"Hamilton","year":"2010","journal-title":"Br. J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"B47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"555","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaophthalmol.2016.0391","article-title":"Ophthalmologic Outcome of Extremely Preterm Infants at 6.5 Years of Age Extremely Preterm Infants in Sweden Study (EXPRESS).","volume":"134","author":"Hellgren","year":"2016","journal-title":"JAMA Ophthalmol."},{"key":"B48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaapos.2019.11.011","article-title":"Cerebral visual impairment captured with a structured history inventory in extremely preterm born children aged 6.5 years.","volume":"28","author":"Hellgren","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. AAPOS"},{"key":"B49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"811","DOI":"10.1111\/apa.14206","article-title":"Extreme prematurity, treated retinopathy, bronchopulmonary dysplasia and cerebral palsy are significant risk factors for ophthalmological abnormalities at 6.5 years of age.","volume":"107","author":"Hellstr\u00f6m","year":"2018","journal-title":"Acta Paediatr."},{"key":"B50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e598","DOI":"10.1097\/WNO.0000000000001127","article-title":"Characterization of Visual Pathway Abnormalities in Infants With Congenital Zika Syndrome Using Computed Tomography and Magnetic Resonance Imaging.","volume":"41","author":"Henderson","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Neuroophthalmol."},{"key":"B51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajo.2019.10.026","article-title":"Prenatal or Perinatal Injury? Diagnosing the Cortically Blind Infant.","volume":"211","author":"Ho","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am. J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"B52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"182","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaophthalmol.2013.5812","article-title":"Ophthalmologic outcome at 30 months\u2019 corrected age of a prospective Swedish cohort of children born before 27 weeks of gestation: the extremely preterm infants in sweden study.","volume":"132","author":"Holmstr\u00f6m","year":"2014","journal-title":"JAMA Ophthalmol."},{"key":"B53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"298","DOI":"10.1017\/s0012162299000675","article-title":"Evidence of cognitive visual problems in children with hydrocephalus: a structured clinical history-taking strategy.","volume":"41","author":"Houliston","year":"1999","journal-title":"Dev. Med Child Neurol."},{"key":"B54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"618","DOI":"10.1111\/dmcn.15108","article-title":"Prognostic value of transient pattern visual evoked potentials in children with cerebral visual impairment.","volume":"64","author":"Howes","year":"2022","journal-title":"Dev. Med. Child Neurol."},{"key":"B55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"369","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.eye.6700364","article-title":"Visual function in the brain-damaged child.","volume":"17","author":"Hoyt","year":"2003","journal-title":"Eye (Lond)."},{"key":"B56","author":"Hoyt","year":"2017","journal-title":"Pediatric Ophthalmology and strabismus"},{"key":"B57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"670","DOI":"10.1136\/bjo.83.6.670","article-title":"Chronic cortical visual impairment in children: aetiology, prognosis, and associated neurological deficits.","volume":"83","author":"Huo","year":"1999","journal-title":"Br. J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"B58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2415-12-27","article-title":"A systematic review on \u2018Foveal Crowding\u2019 in visually impaired children and perceptual learning as a method to reduce Crowding.","volume":"12","author":"Huurneman","year":"2012","journal-title":"BMC Ophthalmol."},{"key":"B59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"724","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-8749.1996.tb12142.x","article-title":"Visual Impairment In Preterm Children With Periventricular Leukomalacia \u2014 Visual, Cognitive And Neuropaediatric Characteristics Related To Cerebral Imaging.","volume":"38","author":"Jacobson","year":"1996","journal-title":"DMCN."},{"key":"B60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/s0039-6257(00)00134-x","article-title":"Periventricular Leukomalacia an important cause of visual and ocular motility dysfunction in children.","volume":"45","author":"Jacobson","year":"2000","journal-title":"Surv. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"B61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"363","DOI":"10.1080\/01658107.2019.1583760","article-title":"Ganglion Cell Topography Indicates Pre- or Postnatal Damage to the Retro-Geniculate Visual System, Predicts Visual Field Function and May Identify Cerebral Visual Impairment in Children - A Multiple Case Study.","volume":"43","author":"Jacobson","year":"2019","journal-title":"Neuroophthalmology."},{"key":"B62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.62.6.15","article-title":"Cerebral visual impairment characterized by abnormal visual orienting behavior with preserved visual cortical activation.","volume":"62","author":"Kelly","year":"2021","journal-title":"Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"B63","first-page":"458","article-title":"Changing pattern of childhood blindness.","volume":"100","author":"Khan","year":"2007","journal-title":"Ir. Med J."},{"key":"B64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaapos.2007.01.122","article-title":"Cortical visual impairment: etiology, associated findings, and prognosis in a tertiary care setting.","volume":"11","author":"Khetpal","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. AAPOS."},{"key":"B65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1246","DOI":"10.1016\/S0161-6420(00)00161-5","article-title":"Shaken baby syndrome.","volume":"107","author":"Kivlin","year":"2000","journal-title":"Ophthalmology."},{"key":"B66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-444-53884-0.00021-X","article-title":"Neurodevelopment of the visual system in typically developing children.","volume":"189","author":"Klaver","year":"2011","journal-title":"Prog. Brain Res."},{"key":"B67","author":"Koenraad","year":"2016","journal-title":"Visual Field Examination in Children with Brain Disorders."},{"key":"B68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1393","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ridd.2014.03.038","article-title":"Viewing behavior and related clinical characteristics in a population of children with visual impairments in the Netherlands.","volume":"35","author":"Kooiker","year":"2014","journal-title":"Res. Dev. Disabil."},{"key":"B69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1301","DOI":"10.1016\/s0042-6989(00)00055-9","article-title":"Human development of perceptual organization.","volume":"40","author":"Kovacs","year":"2000","journal-title":"Vis. Res."},{"key":"B70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.1016\/j.earlhumdev.2010.05.010","article-title":"Epidemiology of neonatal encephalopathy and hypoxic-ischaemic encephalopathy.","volume":"86","author":"Kurinczuk","year":"2010","journal-title":"Early Hum. Dev."},{"key":"B71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1371","DOI":"10.1001\/archopht.1987.01060100073030","article-title":"Visual recovery from hypoxic cortical blindness during childhood. Computed tomographic and magnetic resonance imaging predictors.","volume":"105","author":"Lambert","year":"1987","journal-title":"Arch. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"B72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"825","DOI":"10.1001\/archopht.123.6.825","article-title":"A population-based study on the visual outcome in 10-year-old preterm and full-term children.","volume":"123","author":"Larsson","year":"2005","journal-title":"Arch. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"B73","article-title":"Visual assessment of preterm and full-term infants under the age of 12 months using the Preverbal Visual Assessment questionnaire.","volume":"153","author":"Lee","year":"2012","journal-title":"Early Hum. Dev."},{"key":"B74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2021.734193","article-title":"Pre-and Postnatal Damage to the Retro-Geniculate Visual Pathways Cause Retinal Degeneration Predictive for Visual Function.","volume":"15","author":"Lennartsson","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Hum. Neurosci."},{"key":"B75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1215","DOI":"10.1001\/archopht.123.9.1215","article-title":"Development of visual acuity in children with cerebral visual impairment.","volume":"123","author":"Lim","year":"2005","journal-title":"Arch. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"B76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2020.00617","article-title":"The Need to Look for Visual Deficit After Stroke in Children.","volume":"11","author":"Luckman","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Neurol."},{"key":"B77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/eye.2012.154","article-title":"Reliability of a question inventory for structured history taking in children with cerebral visual impairment.","volume":"26","author":"Macintyre-Beon","year":"2012","journal-title":"Eye (Lond)."},{"key":"B78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1007\/s10633-013-9405-y","article-title":"Cerebral visual dysfunction in prematurely born children attending mainstream school.","volume":"127","author":"Macintyre-Beon","year":"2013","journal-title":"Doc. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"B79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"531","DOI":"10.1097\/WNO.0000000000000999","article-title":"Abnormal vestibular-ocular reflexes in children with cortical visual impairment.","volume":"41","author":"Mansukhani","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Neuroophthalmol."},{"key":"B80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1167\/tvst.9.9.30","article-title":"New Contrast Sensitivity Test for Pediatric Patients: Feasibility and Inter-Examiner Reliability in Ocular Disorders and Cerebral Visual Impairment.","volume":"9","author":"Mayer","year":"2020","journal-title":"Transl. Vis. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"B81","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"224","DOI":"10.1111\/opo.12776","article-title":"What assessments are currently used to investigate and diagnose cerebral visual impairment (CVI) in children? A systematic review.","volume":"41","author":"McConnell","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ophthalmic Physiol. Optics."},{"key":"B82","first-page":"18","article-title":"Alternatives to sedation and general anesthesia in pediatric magnetic resonance imaging: a literature review.","volume":"88","author":"McGuirt","year":"2016","journal-title":"Radiol. Technol."},{"key":"B83","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1016\/j.spen.2017.04.005","article-title":"Disentangling How the Brain is \u201cWired\u201d in Cortical (Cerebral) Visual Impairment.","volume":"24","author":"Merabet","year":"2017","journal-title":"Semin Pediatr. Neurol."},{"key":"B84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1093\/acprof:oso\/9780198524724.001.0001","author":"Milner","year":"2006","journal-title":"The Visual Brain in Action."},{"key":"B85","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"354","DOI":"10.3988\/jcn.2021.17.3.354","article-title":"Development of the Parental Questionnaire for Cerebral Visual Impairment in Children Younger than 72 Months.","volume":"17","author":"Moon","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Clin. Neurol."},{"key":"B86","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2018.00558","article-title":"Gaze-Contingent flicker pupil perimetry detects scotomas in patients with cerebral visual impairments or glaucoma.","volume":"9","author":"Naber","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Neurol."},{"key":"B87","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"881","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpeds.2015.05.045","article-title":"Renin Angiotensin System Blocker Fetopathy: A Midwest Pediatric Nephrology Consortium Report.","volume":"167","author":"Nadeem","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Pediatr."},{"key":"B88","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0420.2006.00867.x","article-title":"Visual dysfunctions and ocular disorders in children with developmental delay. I. prevalence, diagnoses and aetiology of visual impairment.","volume":"85","author":"Nielsen","year":"2007","journal-title":"Acta Ophthalmol Scand."},{"key":"B89","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pediatrneurol.2011.02.008","article-title":"Visual perception in preterm children: what are we currently measuring?","volume":"45","author":"Ortibus","year":"2011","journal-title":"Pediatr Neurol."},{"key":"B90","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"138","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0031-1285908","article-title":"Screening for cerebral visual impairment: value of a CVI questionnaire.","volume":"42","author":"Ortibus","year":"2011","journal-title":"Neuropediatrics."},{"key":"B91","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-8749.2008.03175.x","article-title":"Assessment of cerebral visual impairment with the L94 visual perceptual battery: clinical value and correlation with MRI findings.","volume":"51","author":"Ortibus","year":"2009","journal-title":"Dev. Med. Child Neurol."},{"key":"B92","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"166","DOI":"10.1136\/bjophthalmol-2015-306737","article-title":"Changing trends over the last decade in the aetiology of childhood blindness: a study from a tertiary referral centre.","volume":"100","author":"Ozturk","year":"2016","journal-title":"Br. J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"B93","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nicl.2021.102821","article-title":"Neural correlates associated with impaired global motion perception in cerebral visual impairment (CVI).","volume":"32","author":"Pamir","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neuroimage Clin."},{"key":"B94","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"499","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(12)60815-0","article-title":"Radiation exposure from CT scans in childhood and subsequent risk of leukaemia and brain tumours: a retrospective cohort study.","volume":"380","author":"Pearce","year":"2012","journal-title":"Lancet."},{"key":"B95","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1030","DOI":"10.1111\/dmcn.13115","article-title":"Early identification of cerebral visual impairments in infants born extremely preterm.","volume":"58","author":"Pel","year":"2016","journal-title":"Dev. Med. Child Neurol."},{"key":"B96","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"196","DOI":"10.1111\/cxo.12155","article-title":"Identifying and characterising cerebral visual impairment in children: a review.","volume":"97","author":"Philip","year":"2014","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Optom."},{"key":"B97","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ridd.2020.103580","article-title":"Relationship between brain structure and Cerebral Visual Impairment in children with Cerebral Palsy: A systematic review.","volume":"99","author":"Philip","year":"2020","journal-title":"Res. Dev. Disabil."},{"key":"B98","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"NC01","DOI":"10.7860\/JCDR\/2016\/22222.8943","article-title":"Validation of an Examination Protocol for Cerebral Visual Impairment Among Children in a Clinical Population in India.","volume":"10","author":"Philip","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Clin. Diagn. Res."},{"key":"B99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"849","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-8749.1994.tb11776.x","article-title":"Patterns of visual imparment assocated with lesions of the preterm infant brain.","volume":"36","author":"Pike","year":"1994","journal-title":"Dev. Med. Child Neurol."},{"key":"B100","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"833","DOI":"10.1080\/026990500421930","article-title":"Visual disorders after traumatic brain injury in developmental age.","volume":"14","author":"Poggi","year":"2000","journal-title":"Brain Inj."},{"key":"B101","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1231","DOI":"10.1136\/bjo.82.11.1231","article-title":"Visual behaviours of neurologically impaired children with cerebral visual impairment: an ethological study.","volume":"82","author":"Porro","year":"1998","journal-title":"Br. J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"B102","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"361","DOI":"10.1080\/01658107.2020.1762097","article-title":"Lessons Learned from 23 Years of Experience in Testing Visual Fields of Neurologically Impaired Children.","volume":"44","author":"Portengen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neuro-Ophthalmology."},{"key":"B103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1359","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(03)14631-4","article-title":"British childhood visual impairment study g. severe visual impairment and blindness in children in the uk.","volume":"362","author":"Rahi","year":"2003","journal-title":"Lancet."},{"key":"B104","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2021.769259","article-title":"Evaluation of the Relationship Between Preferential Looking Testing and Visual Evoked Potentials as a Biomarker of Cerebral Visual Impairment.","volume":"15","author":"Raja","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Hum. Neurosci."},{"key":"B105","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1755-3768.1992.tb04118.x","article-title":"Visual impairment in Nordic children I Nordi Registers and prevalence data.","volume":"70","author":"Riise","year":"1992","journal-title":"Acta Ophthalmol"},{"key":"B106","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1136\/bjo.80.1.49","article-title":"Incidence of registered visual impairment in the Nordic child population.","volume":"80","author":"Rosenberg","year":"1996","journal-title":"Br. J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"B107","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"484","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.05-0529","article-title":"Changes in the optic disc excavation of children affected by cerebral visual impairment: a tomographic analysis.","volume":"47","author":"Ruberto","year":"2006","journal-title":"Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"B108","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"426","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaapos.2007.04.015","article-title":"Cognitive visual impairment with good visual acuity in children with posterior periventricular white matter injury: a series of 7 cases.","volume":"11","author":"Saidkasimova","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. AAPOS."},{"key":"B109","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"731","DOI":"10.1177\/08830738020170101201","article-title":"Contrast sensitivity of patients with severe motor and intellectual disabilities and cerebral visual impairment.","volume":"17","author":"Sakai","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Child Neurol."},{"key":"B110","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"424","DOI":"10.1136\/bjophthalmol-2017-310694","article-title":"Is there consensus in defining childhood cerebral visual impairment? A systematic review of terminology and definitions.","volume":"102","author":"Sakki","year":"2018","journal-title":"Br. J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"B111","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.1111\/dmcn.14710","article-title":"Visual function subtyping in children with early-onset cerebral visual impairment.","volume":"63","author":"Sakki","year":"2021","journal-title":"Dev. Med. Child Neurol."},{"key":"B112","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"542","DOI":"10.1017\/s0012162201002535","article-title":"Oculomotor dysfunction in cerebral visual impairment following perinatal hypoxia.","volume":"44","author":"Salati","year":"2002","journal-title":"Dev. Med. Child Neurol."},{"key":"B113","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1111\/cch.12377","article-title":"Development and face validity of a cerebral visual impairment motor questionnaire for children with cerebral palsy.","volume":"43","author":"Salavati","year":"2017","journal-title":"Child Care Health Dev."},{"key":"B114","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"729","DOI":"10.1001\/archpedi.160.7.729","article-title":"Postasphyxial hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy in neonates: outcome prediction rule within 4 hours of birth.","volume":"160","author":"Shah","year":"2006","journal-title":"Arch Pediatr. Adolesc Med."},{"key":"B115","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1534","DOI":"10.1213\/ane.0b013e3181b0500b","article-title":"The prevalence of perioperative visual loss in the United States: a 10\u2013year study from 1996 to 2005 of spinal, orthopedic, cardiac, and general surgery.","volume":"109","author":"Shen","year":"2009","journal-title":"Anesth Analg."},{"key":"B116","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1055\/s-2005-837574","article-title":"Predictive value of neonatal MRI with respect to late MRI findings and clinical outcome. A study in infants with periventricular densities on neonatal ultrasound.","volume":"36","author":"Sie","year":"2005","journal-title":"Neuropediatrics."},{"key":"B117","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"526","DOI":"10.1017\/s001216220400088x","article-title":"Vernier acuity is selectively affected in infants and children with cortical visual impairment.","volume":"46","author":"Skoczenski","year":"2004","journal-title":"Dev. Med. Child Neurol."},{"key":"B118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"853","DOI":"10.1136\/archdischild-2016-310532","article-title":"Epidemiology of blindness in children.","volume":"102","author":"Solebo","year":"2017","journal-title":"Arch Dis Child."},{"key":"B119","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.1016\/s0387-7604(01)00241-8","article-title":"The variety of visual perceptual impairments in pre-school children with perinatal brain damage.","volume":"23","author":"Stiers","year":"2001","journal-title":"Brain Dev."},{"key":"B120","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2021.732927","article-title":"The developmental eye movement test as a diagnostic aid in cerebral visual impairment.","volume":"15","author":"Tanke","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Hum. Neurosci."},{"key":"B121","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nicl.2020.102430","article-title":"Structural brain damage and visual disorders in children with cerebral palsy due to periventricular leukomalacia.","volume":"28","author":"Tinelli","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neuroimage Clin."},{"key":"B122","first-page":"979","article-title":"Cerebral visual impairment in periventricular leukomalacia: MR correlation.","volume":"17","author":"Uggetti","year":"1996","journal-title":"AJNR Am. J. Neuroradiol."},{"key":"B123","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"296","DOI":"10.1080\/87565641.2019.1590836","article-title":"Gestalt Perception in Children With Visual Impairments: Item-Specific Performance and Looking Behavior.","volume":"44","author":"Van der Zee","year":"2019","journal-title":"Dev. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"B124","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1016\/j.optom.2016.01.003","article-title":"Should we add visual acuity ratios to referral criteria for potential cerebral visual impairment?","volume":"10","author":"van der Zee","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Optom."},{"key":"B125","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.3109\/09273972.2012.680232","article-title":"Diagnosing cerebral visual impairment in children with good visual acuity.","volume":"20","author":"van Genderen","year":"2012","journal-title":"Strabismus"},{"key":"B126","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1297","DOI":"10.1136\/bjo.2006.096404","article-title":"6,220 institutionalised people with intellectual disability referred for visual assessment between 1993 and 2003: overview and trends.","volume":"90","author":"van Isterdael","year":"2006","journal-title":"Br. J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"B127","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.1111\/dmcn.14304","article-title":"Assessment tool for visual perception deficits in cerebral visual impairment: reliability and validity.","volume":"62","author":"Vancleef","year":"2020","journal-title":"Dev. Med. Child Neurol."},{"key":"B128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaapos.2017.04.003","article-title":"Visual impairment in children with congenital Zika syndrome.","volume":"21","author":"Ventura","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. AAPOS"},{"key":"B129","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.2147\/EB.S186306","article-title":"Neuro-ophthalmological manifestations of tuberous sclerosis: current perspectives.","volume":"11","author":"Wan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eye Brain."},{"key":"B130","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"450","DOI":"10.1034\/j.1600-0420.2001.790504.x","article-title":"Visual impairment in adult people with moderate, severe, and profound intellectual disability.","volume":"79","author":"Warburg","year":"2001","journal-title":"Acta Ophthalmol. Scand."},{"key":"B131","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1097\/OPX.0b013e3181c75184","article-title":"Early visual evoked potential acuity and future behavioral acuity in cortical visual impairment.","volume":"87","author":"Watson","year":"2010","journal-title":"Optom. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"B132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"471","DOI":"10.1097\/OPX.0b013e31806dba5f","article-title":"Longitudinal quantitative assessment of vision function in children with cortical visual impairment.","volume":"84","author":"Watson","year":"2007","journal-title":"Optom. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"B133","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"774","DOI":"10.1097\/OPX.0b013e3181a59d2a","article-title":"VEP vernier, VEP grating, and behavioral grating acuity in patients with cortical visual impairment.","volume":"86","author":"Watson","year":"2009","journal-title":"Optom. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"B134","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2021.673342","article-title":"Behavioural Features of Cerebral Visual Impairment Are Common in Children With Down Syndrome.","volume":"15","author":"Wilton","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front Hum. Neurosci."},{"key":"B135","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"178","DOI":"10.1016\/0887-8994(91)90081-u","article-title":"Cortical blindness in children: a study of etiology and prognosis.","volume":"7","author":"Wong","year":"1991","journal-title":"Pediatr. Neurol."},{"key":"B136","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"285","DOI":"10.1016\/j.braindev.2006.09.011","article-title":"Neurologic outcome in patients with MRI pattern of damage typical for neonatal hypoglycemia.","volume":"29","author":"Yalnizoglu","year":"2007","journal-title":"Brain Dev."},{"key":"B137","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1016\/j.optom.2016.01.003","article-title":"Should we add visual acuity ratios to referral criteria for potential cerebral visual impairment?","volume":"10","author":"van der Zee","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Optom."},{"key":"B138","author":"Zuidhoek","year":"2015","journal-title":"The Role of Attention and Executive Brain Functions in Seeing and Behavior in Children with CVI."},{"key":"B139","first-page":"343","article-title":"Assessment of visual processing in children with CVI","author":"Zuidhoek","year":"2015","journal-title":"Vision and the Brain. Understanding Cerebral Visual Impairment in Children"}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Human Neuroscience"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fnhum.2022.727565\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,30]],"date-time":"2022-06-30T06:25:09Z","timestamp":1656570309000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fnhum.2022.727565\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,30]]},"references-count":139,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fnhum.2022.727565"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fnhum.2022.727565","relation":{},"ISSN":["1662-5161"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1662-5161","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,30]]},"article-number":"727565"}}