{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,30]],"date-time":"2025-07-30T16:09:01Z","timestamp":1753891741581,"version":"3.41.2"},"reference-count":46,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,28]],"date-time":"2022-01-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1643328000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Hum. Neurosci."],"abstract":"<jats:sec><jats:title>Purpose<\/jats:title><jats:p>This study investigated the impact of age and myopia on visual form perception among Chinese school-age children.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title><jats:p>This cross-sectional study included 1,074 students with a mean age of 12.1 \u00b1 4.7 (range = 7.3\u201318.9) years. The mean spherical equivalence refraction (SER) of the participants was \u22121.45 \u00b1 2.07 D. All participants underwent distance visual acuity (VA), refraction measurement and local and global visual form perception test including orientation, parallelism, collinearity, holes and color discrimination tasks.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Results<\/jats:title><jats:p>The reaction times of emmetropes were slower than those of myopic and high myopic groups on both local (orientation, parallelism, and collinearity) and global discrimination tasks (all <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic> &amp;lt; 0.05). A reduction in reaction times was found with increasing age on both local and global discrimination tasks (all <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic> &amp;lt; 0.05). Age was significantly associated with both local and global visual perception performance after adjusting for gender, visual acuity and SER (orientation, \u03b2 = \u22120.54, <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic> &amp;lt; 0.001; parallelism, \u03b2 = \u22120.365, <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic> &amp;lt; 0.001; collinearity, \u03b2 = \u22120.28, <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic> &amp;lt; 0.001; holes, \u03b2 = \u22120.319, <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic> &amp;lt; 0.001; color, \u03b2 = \u22120.346, <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic> &amp;lt; 0.001).<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title><jats:p>This study revealed that both local and global visual perception improve with age among Chinese children and that myopes seem to have better visual perception than emmetropes.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2022.740003","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,28]],"date-time":"2022-01-28T06:08:27Z","timestamp":1643350107000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Effect of Age and Refractive Error on Local and Global Visual Perception in Chinese Children and Adolescents"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Jiahe","family":"Gan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ningli","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Shiming","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Bo","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Mengtian","family":"Kang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Shifei","family":"Wei","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jiyuan","family":"Guo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Luoru","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"He","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"830","DOI":"10.1097\/OPX.0000000000001101","article-title":"Visual acuity and contrast sensitivity development in children: sweep visually evoked potential and psychophysics.","volume":"94","author":"Almoqbel","year":"2017","journal-title":"Optom. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3973","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.17-23168","article-title":"Development of symbol discrimination speed in children with normal vision.","volume":"59","author":"Barsingerhorn","year":"2018","journal-title":"Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.5334\/pb-51-1-5","article-title":"Combining speed and accuracy in cognitive psychology: is the inverse efficiency score (IES) a better dependent variable than the mean reaction time (RT) and the percentage of errors (PE)?","volume":"51","author":"Bruyer","year":"2011","journal-title":"Psychol. Belg."},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3851","DOI":"10.1016\/0042-6989(96)00085-5","article-title":"The comparative development of movement hyperacuity and visual acuity in children.","volume":"36","author":"Buckingham","year":"1996","journal-title":"Vis. Res."},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"699","DOI":"10.1126\/science.7134969","article-title":"Topological structure in visual perception.","volume":"218","author":"Chen","year":"1982","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"553","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1010919108","article-title":"The topological approach to perceptual organization.","volume":"12","author":"Chen","year":"2005","journal-title":"Vis. Cogn."},{"key":"B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cognition.2019.03.014","article-title":"Visual form perception is fundamental for both reading comprehension and arithmetic computation.","volume":"189","author":"Cui","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cognition"},{"key":"B8","first-page":"13","article-title":"Are children with myopia more intelligent? A literature review.","volume":"54","author":"Czepita","year":"2008","journal-title":"Ann Acad Med Stetin"},{"key":"B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"571","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tins.2015.07.003","article-title":"Demystifying cognitive flexibility: implications for clinical and developmental neuroscience.","volume":"38","author":"Dajani","year":"2015","journal-title":"Trends Neurosci."},{"key":"B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"276","DOI":"10.1038\/519276a","article-title":"The myopia boom.","volume":"519","author":"Dolgin","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"B11","first-page":"598","article-title":"Stereoacuity in young children.","volume":"27","author":"Fox","year":"1986","journal-title":"Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1023\/a:1002171011644","article-title":"A VEP investigation of parallel visual pathway development in primary school age children.","volume":"99","author":"Gordon","year":"1999","journal-title":"Doc. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"B13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1036","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ophtha.2016.01.006","article-title":"Global prevalence of myopia and high myopia and temporal trends from 2000 through 2050.","volume":"123","author":"Holden","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"key":"B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"314","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1399-0004.1975.tb01508.x","article-title":"Influence of the myopia gene on brain development.","volume":"8","author":"Karlsson","year":"1975","journal-title":"Clin. Genet."},{"key":"B15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-444-53884-0.00021-X","article-title":"Neurodevelopment of the visual system in typically developing children.","volume":"189","author":"Klaver","year":"2011","journal-title":"Prog. Brain Res."},{"key":"B16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"498","DOI":"10.1097\/OPX.0000000000001223","article-title":"Dot motion perception in young adult emmetropes and myopes.","volume":"95","author":"Kuo","year":"2018","journal-title":"Optom. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"B17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"E90","DOI":"10.1097\/OPX.0b013e31823733e6","article-title":"Visual backward masking performance in young adult emmetropes and myopes.","volume":"89","author":"Kuo","year":"2012","journal-title":"Optom. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"B18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2004.12.005","article-title":"Cognitive and affective development in adolescence.","volume":"9","author":"Laurence","year":"2005","journal-title":"Trends Cogn. Sci."},{"key":"B19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100862","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dcn.2020.100862","article-title":"Functional neural network configuration in late childhood varies by age and cognitive state.","volume":"45","author":"Le","year":"2020","journal-title":"Dev. Cogn. Neurosci."},{"key":"B20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3921\/joptom.2009.19","article-title":"Development of visual acuity and contrast sensitivity in children.","volume":"2","author":"Leat","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Optom."},{"key":"B21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e521","DOI":"10.1111\/aos.12366","article-title":"Normative visual acuity in infants and preschool-aged children in Sydney.","volume":"92","author":"Leone","year":"2014","journal-title":"Acta Ophthalmol."},{"key":"B22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1002\/dev.20055","article-title":"Multiple sensitive periods in human visual development: evidence from visually deprived children.","volume":"46","author":"Lewis","year":"2010","journal-title":"Dev. Psychobiol."},{"key":"B23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"794","DOI":"10.3109\/02713683.2012.683506","article-title":"Voxel-based morphometry of the visual-related cortex in primary open angle glaucoma.","volume":"37","author":"Li","year":"2012","journal-title":"Curr. Eye Res."},{"key":"B24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20243","DOI":"10.1038\/srep20243","article-title":"Corneal power, anterior segment length and lens power in 14-year-old Chinese children: the anyang childhood eye study.","volume":"6","author":"Li","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"B25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0134514","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0134514","article-title":"Near work related parameters and myopia in chinese children: the anyang childhood eye study.","volume":"10","author":"Li","year":"2015","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"B26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"348","DOI":"10.3109\/09286586.2013.842596","article-title":"Design, methodology and baseline data of a school-based cohort study in Central China: the anyang childhood eye study.","volume":"20","author":"Li","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ophthalmic Epidemiol."},{"key":"B27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1209","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mehy.2005.11.037","article-title":"Myopia as a latent phenotype of a pleiotropic gene positively selected for facilitating neurocognitive development, and the effects of environmental factors in its expression.","volume":"66","author":"Mak","year":"2006","journal-title":"Med. Hypotheses"},{"key":"B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"647","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-020-08765-8","article-title":"Association of myopia with cognitive function among one million adolescents.","volume":"20","author":"Megreli","year":"2020","journal-title":"BMC Public Health"},{"key":"B29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e00979","DOI":"10.1002\/brb3.979","article-title":"The dissociations of visual processing of \u201chole\u201d and \u201cno-hole\u201d stimuli: an functional magnetic resonance imaging study.","volume":"8","author":"Meng","year":"2018","journal-title":"Brain Behav."},{"key":"B30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1167\/19.1.10","article-title":"Age-related changes in local and global visual perception.","volume":"19","author":"Meng","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Vis."},{"key":"B31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5230","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.16-19507","article-title":"Myopia and cognitive performance: results from the gutenberg health study.","volume":"57","author":"Mirshahi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"B32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"827","DOI":"10.1016\/j.visres.2004.10.005","article-title":"The maturation of form and motion perception in school age children.","volume":"45","author":"Parrish","year":"2005","journal-title":"Vis. Res."},{"key":"B33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1016\/j.visres.2016.03.010","article-title":"Development of contrast normalization mechanisms during childhood and adolescence.","volume":"133","author":"Pei","year":"2017","journal-title":"Vision Res."},{"key":"B34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"471","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2003.09.007","article-title":"Wholes, holes, and basic features in vision.","volume":"7","author":"Pomerantz","year":"2003","journal-title":"Trends Cogn. Sci."},{"key":"B35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"E10484","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1708261114","article-title":"Gap junctional coupling between retinal amacrine and ganglion cells underlies coherent activity integral to global object perception.","volume":"114","author":"Roy","year":"2017","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A."},{"key":"B36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1475-1313.2006.00455.x","article-title":"School grades and myopia.","volume":"27","author":"Saw","year":"2007","journal-title":"Ophthalmic Physiol. Opt"},{"key":"B37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"390","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(05)71520-8","article-title":"Nearwork and myopia in young children.","volume":"357","author":"Saw","year":"2001","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"B38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2943","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.03-1296","article-title":"IQ and the association with myopia in children.","volume":"45","author":"Saw","year":"2004","journal-title":"Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"B39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"679","DOI":"10.1080\/87565641.2010.508546","article-title":"Memory maintenance and inhibitory control differentiate from early childhood to adolescence.","volume":"35","author":"Shing","year":"2010","journal-title":"Dev. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"B40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2621","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1516947113","article-title":"Cognitive fatigue influences students\u2019 performance on standardized tests.","volume":"113","author":"Sievertsen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A."},{"key":"B41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1351","DOI":"10.1016\/s0140-6736(88)90880-x","article-title":"Degree of myopia in relation to intelligence and educational level.","volume":"2","author":"Teasdale","year":"1988","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"B42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"21014","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0709664104","article-title":"Global topological dominance in the left hemisphere.","volume":"104","author":"Wang","year":"2007","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A."},{"key":"B43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4691","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.18-24363","article-title":"Refractive errors in university students in central China: the anyang university students eye study.","volume":"59","author":"Wei","year":"2018","journal-title":"Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"B44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"14263","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms14263","article-title":"Superior colliculus neurons encode a visual saliency map during free viewing of natural dynamic video.","volume":"8","author":"White","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"B45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"45977","DOI":"10.1038\/srep45977","article-title":"Phenotypic and genotypic correlation between myopia and intelligence.","volume":"7","author":"Williams","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"B46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8104","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.13-11958","article-title":"Retinal nerve fiber layer thickness in a population of 12-year-old children in central China measured by iVue-100 spectral-domain optical coherence tomography: the anyang childhood eye study.","volume":"54","author":"Zhu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci."}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Human Neuroscience"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fnhum.2022.740003\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,28]],"date-time":"2022-01-28T06:08:34Z","timestamp":1643350114000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fnhum.2022.740003\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,28]]},"references-count":46,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fnhum.2022.740003"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fnhum.2022.740003","relation":{},"ISSN":["1662-5161"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1662-5161"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,28]]},"article-number":"740003"}}