{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,31]],"date-time":"2026-03-31T05:14:41Z","timestamp":1774934081891,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":65,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,31]],"date-time":"2022-08-31T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1661904000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Hum. Neurosci."],"abstract":"<jats:p>Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a major cause of death and disability in Western society, and often results in functional and neuropsychological abnormalities. Memory impairment is one of the most significant cognitive implications after TBI. In the current study we investigated procedural memory acquisition by observational training in TBI patients. It was previously found that while practicing a new motor skill, patients engage in all three phases of skill learning\u2013fast acquisition, between-session consolidation, and long-term retention, though their pattern of learning is atypical compared to healthy participants. A different set of studies showed that training by observing a motor task, generally prompted effective acquisition and consolidation of procedural knowledge in healthy participants. The aim of our study was to (i) evaluate the potential benefit of action observation in TBI patients. (ii) Examine the possibility of general improvement in performance between the first (24 h post-training) and second (2 weeks post-training) stage of the study. (iii) Investigate the link between patients\u2019 ability to benefit from observational learning (<jats:italic>via<\/jats:italic>performance gains\u2013speed and accuracy) and common measures of injury (such as severity of injury, functional and cognitive measures).<\/jats:p><jats:sec><jats:title>Materials and methods<\/jats:title><jats:p>Patients hospitalized after moderate to severe TBI, were trained by observation for the finger opposition sequence (FOS) motor task. They were then tested for the observation-trained sequence (A) and a similar control sequence (B), at two different time-points (24 h post-training and 2 weeks later).<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Results revealed<\/jats:title><jats:p>(i) a significant difference in performance between the trained (A) and untrained (B) sequences, in favor of the trained sequence. (ii) An increase in performance for both sequences A and B toward the second (retention) session. (iii) The advantage for sequence A was stable and preserved also in the second session. (iv) Participants with lower moderate Functional Independence Measure (FIM) scores gained more from observational-procedural learning, compared with patients with higher functional abilities.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title><jats:p>Overall, these findings support the notion that TBI patients may achieve procedural memory consolidation and retention through observational learning. Moreover, different functional traits may predict the outcomes of observational training in different patients. These findings may have significant practical implications in the future, regarding skill acquisition methods in TBI patients.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2022.940075","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,31]],"date-time":"2022-08-31T08:16:43Z","timestamp":1661933803000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Skill-learning by observation-training with patients after traumatic brain injury"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Einat","family":"Avraham","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yaron","family":"Sacher","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Rinatia","family":"Maaravi-Hesseg","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Avi","family":"Karni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ravid","family":"Doron","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,31]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.101.1.41","article-title":"Historical review and appraisal of research on the learning, retention and transfer of human motor skills.","volume":"101","author":"Adams","year":"1987","journal-title":"Psychol. Bull."},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"568","DOI":"10.1037\/bul0000048","article-title":"Time for considering constraints on procedural memory consolidation processes: Comment on pan and rickard (2015) with specific reference to developmental changes.","volume":"142","author":"Adi-japha","year":"2016","journal-title":"Psychol. Bull."},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1101\/87505","article-title":"A latent consolidation phase in auditory identification learning: Time in the awake state is sufficient.","volume":"12","author":"Ari-Even Roth","year":"2005","journal-title":"Learn. Mem."},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.2340\/165020001991187191","article-title":"Early prognosis of stroke outcome by means of Katz Index of Activities of Daily Living.","volume":"1991","author":"Asberg","year":"1991","journal-title":"Stand. J. Rehabil. Med."},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"499","DOI":"10.1007\/s00221-006-0757-3","article-title":"When practice does not make perfect: Well-practiced handwriting interferes with the consolidation phase gains in learning a movement sequence.","volume":"178","author":"Balas","year":"2007","journal-title":"Exp. Brain Res."},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1016\/0272-7358(88)90050-5","article-title":"Psychometric properties of the Beck Depression Inventory: Twenty-five years of evaluation.","volume":"8","author":"Beck","year":"1988","journal-title":"Clin. Psychol. Rev."},{"key":"B7","author":"Bigler","year":"2015","journal-title":"Neuropathology of Mild Traumatic Brain Injury: Correlation to Neurocognitive and Neurobehavioral Findings. Brain Neurotrauma: Molecular, Neuropsychological, and Rehabilitation Aspects."},{"key":"B8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4899-2534-3","author":"Bigler","year":"1989","journal-title":"Neuropsychological Function and Brain Imaging. Neuropsychological Function and Brain Imaging."},{"key":"B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1153","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1553-2712.2001.tb01132.x","article-title":"Reliability of the visual analog scale for measurement of acute pain.","volume":"8","author":"Bijur","year":"2001","journal-title":"Acad. Emerg. Med."},{"key":"B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"957","DOI":"10.1080\/713755856","article-title":"Cognitive processes underlying observational learning of motor skills.","volume":"52","author":"Blandin","year":"1999","journal-title":"Q. J. Exp. Psychol. Sec. A"},{"key":"B11","author":"Bobath","year":"1990","journal-title":"Adult hemiplegia: Evaluation and treatment"},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"240","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actpsy.2010.07.005","article-title":"Role of action observation and action in sequence learning and coding.","volume":"135","author":"Boutin","year":"2010","journal-title":"Acta Psychol."},{"key":"B13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"874","DOI":"10.1177\/1545968314527350","article-title":"Plasticity and Response to Action Observation: A Longitudinal fMRI Study of Potential Mirror Neurons in Patients with Subacute Stroke.","volume":"28","author":"Brunner","year":"2014","journal-title":"Neurorehabil. Neural Repair"},{"key":"B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"400","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1460-9568.2001.01385.x","article-title":"Action observation activates premotor and parietal areas in a somatotopic manner: An fMRI study.","volume":"13","author":"Buccino","year":"2001","journal-title":"Eur. J. Neurosci."},{"key":"B15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1905","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2006.07.065","article-title":"Seeing or doing? Influence of visual and motor familiarity in action observation.","volume":"16","author":"Calvo-Merino","year":"2006","journal-title":"Curr. Biol."},{"key":"B16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1148","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2009.12.112","article-title":"ALE meta-analysis of action observation and imitation in the human brain.","volume":"50","author":"Caspers","year":"2010","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"B17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.1093\/cercor\/bhn083","article-title":"Sensitivity of the Action Observation Network to Physical and Observational Learning.","volume":"19","author":"Cross","year":"2009","journal-title":"Cereb. Cortex"},{"key":"B18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0894-4105.7.2.193","article-title":"Increased intrusions during verbal recall in traumatic and nontraumatic lesions of the temporal lobe.","volume":"7","author":"Crosson","year":"1993","journal-title":"Neuropsychology"},{"key":"B19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"17839","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1013176107","article-title":"Brain plasticity related to the consolidation of motor sequence learning and motor adaptation.","volume":"107","author":"Debas","year":"2010","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A."},{"key":"B20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1016\/0167-9457(85)90014-4","article-title":"The effect of auditory and visual models on acquisition of a timing task.","volume":"4","author":"Doody","year":"1985","journal-title":"Hum. Mov. Sci."},{"key":"B21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0000240","article-title":"Reduced Susceptibility to Interference in the Consolidation of Motor Memory before Adolescence.","volume":"2","author":"Dorfberger","year":"2007","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"B22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1007\/s00221-009-1748-y","article-title":"Contribution of night and day sleep vs. simple passage of time to the consolidation of motor sequence and visuomotor adaptation learning.","volume":"195","author":"Doyon","year":"2009","journal-title":"Exp. Brain Res."},{"key":"B23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"164","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2007.03.043","article-title":"Action observation has a positive impact on rehabilitation of motor deficits after stroke.","volume":"36","author":"Ertelt","year":"2007","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"B24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1002\/pri.180","article-title":"Predicting motor recovery of the upper limb after stroke rehabilitation: Value of a clinical examination.","volume":"5","author":"Feys","year":"2000","journal-title":"Physiother. Res. Int"},{"key":"B25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"456","DOI":"10.1177\/1545968311427406","article-title":"Clinical Relevance of Action Observation in Upper-Limb Stroke Rehabilitation: A Possible Role in Recovery of Functional Dexterity. A Randomized Clinical Trial.","volume":"26","author":"Franceschini","year":"2012","journal-title":"Neurorehab. Neural Repair"},{"key":"B26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2247","DOI":"10.1161\/STROKEAHA.113.001105","article-title":"Modulating the Motor System by Action Observation After Stroke.","volume":"44","author":"Garrison","year":"2013","journal-title":"Stroke"},{"key":"B27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neulet.2012.11.039","article-title":"Action observation versus motor imagery in learning a complex motor task: A short review of literature and a kinematics study.","volume":"540","author":"Gatti","year":"2013","journal-title":"Neurosci. Lett."},{"key":"B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"928","DOI":"10.1016\/s1053-8119(03)00042-9","article-title":"Activations related to \u201cmirror\u201d and \u201ccanonical\u201d neurones in the human brain: An fMRI study.","volume":"18","author":"Gr\u00e8zes","year":"2003","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"B29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cogbrainres.2005.01.012","article-title":"The predictive value of the levelling off of within-session performance for procedural memory consolidation.","volume":"24","author":"Hauptmann","year":"2005","journal-title":"Cogn. Brain Res."},{"key":"B30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"313","DOI":"10.1016\/s0926-6410(01)00124-0","article-title":"From primed to learn: The saturation of repetition priming and the induction of long-term memory.","volume":"13","author":"Hauptmann","year":"2002","journal-title":"Brain Res. Cogn. Brain Res."},{"key":"B31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1007\/s00221-010-2303-6","article-title":"General motor representations are developed during action-observation.","volume":"204","author":"Hayes","year":"2010","journal-title":"Exp. Brain Res."},{"key":"B32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1101\/lm.041228.115","article-title":"Not quite there: Skill consolidation in training by doing or observing.","volume":"23","author":"Hesseg","year":"2016","journal-title":"Learn. Mem."},{"key":"B33","author":"Hesseg","year":"2017","journal-title":"Watch and Learn: Motor Skill Acquisition and Consolidation Through Training by Observation Vs. Actual Performance"},{"key":"B34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"593","DOI":"10.1080\/02724980143000389","article-title":"Motor learning by observation: Evidence from a serial reaction time task.","volume":"55","author":"Heyes","year":"2002","journal-title":"Q. J. Exp. Psychol."},{"key":"B35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3775","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.14-06-03775.1994","article-title":"Motor Sequence Tomography Learning : A Study with Positron.","volume":"14","author":"Jenkins","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"B36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1016\/s0926-6410(96)00039-0","article-title":"The acquisition of perceptual and motor skills: A memory system in the adult human cortex.","volume":"5","author":"Karni","year":"1996","journal-title":"Cogn. Brain Res."},{"key":"B37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1038\/377155a0","article-title":"Functional MRI evidence for adult motor cortex plasticity during motor skill learning.","volume":"377","author":"Karni","year":"1995","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"B38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"861","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.95.3.861","article-title":"The acquisition of skilled motor performance: Fast and slow experience driven changes in primary motor cortex.","volume":"95","author":"Karni","year":"1998","journal-title":"PNAS"},{"key":"B39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"250","DOI":"10.1038\/365250a0","article-title":"The time course of learning a visual skill.","volume":"365","author":"Karni","year":"1993","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"B40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"679","DOI":"10.1126\/science.8036518","article-title":"Dependence on REM sleep of overnight improvement of a perceptual skill.","volume":"265","author":"Karni","year":"1994","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"B41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1206","DOI":"10.1038\/nn1959","article-title":"Daytime sleep condenses the time course of motor memory consolidation.","volume":"10","author":"Korman","year":"2007","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"key":"B42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"12492","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2035019100","article-title":"Multiple shifts in the representation of a motor sequence during the acquisition of skilled performance.","volume":"100","author":"Korman","year":"2003","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A."},{"key":"B43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2018.00010","article-title":"Atypical within-session motor procedural learning after traumatic brain injury but well preserved between-session procedural memory consolidation.","volume":"12","author":"Korman","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Hum. Neurosci."},{"key":"B44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1080\/01688639008400960","article-title":"Memory deficit after closed head injury.","volume":"12","author":"Levin","year":"1989","journal-title":"J. Clin. Exp. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"B45","author":"Maaravi-Hesseg","year":"2006","journal-title":"Mental Practice Vs. Actual Practice During the Acquisition of a Cognitive Skill."},{"key":"B46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1201\/b18126-5","article-title":"Development of concepts in the pathology of traumatic axonal and traumatic brain injury","author":"Maxwell","year":"2015","journal-title":"Brain Neurotrauma: Molecular, Neuropsychological and Rehabilitation Aspects"},{"key":"B47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1291","DOI":"10.1016\/0003-9993(93)90081-K","article-title":"The functional independence measure: Its use to identify rehabilitation needs in stroke survivors.","volume":"74","author":"Oczkowski","year":"1993","journal-title":"Arch. Phys. Med. Rehabil."},{"key":"B48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1016\/j.genhosppsych.2015.11.005","article-title":"Screening for anxiety disorders with the GAD-7 and GAD-2: A systematic review and diagnostic meta-analysis","volume":"39","author":"Plummer","year":"2015","journal-title":"Gen. Hosp. Psychiatry"},{"key":"B49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1016\/0926-6410(95)00038-0","article-title":"Premotor cortex and the recognition of motor actions.","volume":"3","author":"Rizzolatti","year":"1996","journal-title":"Brain Res. Cogn. Brain Res."},{"key":"B50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2035","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.2002.88.4.2035","article-title":"Learning of sequences of finger movements and timing: Frontal lobe and action-oriented representation.","volume":"88","author":"Sakai","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"B51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"615","DOI":"10.1017\/S1355617701755099","article-title":"Acquisition of skilled visual search performance following severe closed-head injury.","volume":"7","author":"Schmitter-Edgecombe","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Int. Neuropsychol. Soc."},{"key":"B52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1097\/01.HTR.0000290971.56130.c8","article-title":"The utility of the FIM+FAM for assessing traumatic brain injury day program outcomes.","volume":"22","author":"Seel","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Head Trauma Rehabil"},{"key":"B53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nlm.2004.06.005","article-title":"Memory systems of the brain: A brief history and current perspective.","volume":"82","author":"Squire","year":"2004","journal-title":"Neurobiol. Learn. Mem."},{"key":"B54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.1016\/S0003-9993(98)90062-4","article-title":"Functional task benchmarks for stroke rehabilitation.","volume":"79","author":"Stineman","year":"1998","journal-title":"Arch. Phys. Med. Rehabil."},{"key":"B55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"584","DOI":"10.1097\/WCO.0b013e32834c7eb9","article-title":"Traumatic brain injury: Relation to executive dysfunction and the frontal lobes.","volume":"24","author":"Stuss","year":"2011","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Neurol."},{"key":"B56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1005","DOI":"10.1016\/S0028-3932(98)00158-4","article-title":"Dissociation of attentional processes in patients with focal frontal and posterior lesions","volume":"37","author":"Stuss","year":"1999","journal-title":"Neuropsychologia"},{"key":"B57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(74)91639-0","article-title":"Assessment of coma and impaired consciousness.","volume":"2","author":"Teasdale","year":"1974","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"B58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1656","DOI":"10.1162\/jocn.2007.19.10.1656","article-title":"The what and how of observational learning.","volume":"19","author":"Torriero","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Cogn. Neurosci."},{"key":"B59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"977","DOI":"10.1080\/13803390490919245","article-title":"The effect of moderate to severe traumatic brain injury (TBI) on different aspects of memory: A selective review.","volume":"27","author":"Vakil","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Clin. Exp. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"B60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"304","DOI":"10.1016\/S0278-2626(02)00515-8","article-title":"Impaired skill learning in patients with severe closed-head injury as demonstrated by the serial reaction time (SRT) task.","volume":"50","author":"Vakil","year":"2002","journal-title":"Brain Cogn."},{"key":"B61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"18926","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0901320106","article-title":"Learning by observation requires an early sleep window.","volume":"106","author":"Van Der Werf","year":"2009","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A."},{"key":"B62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"256","DOI":"10.3758\/bf03195286","article-title":"Implicit motor learning through observational training in adults and children.","volume":"30","author":"Vinter","year":"2002","journal-title":"Mem. Cogn."},{"key":"B63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1017\/s0140525x05000026","article-title":"A refined model of sleep and the time course of memory formation.","volume":"28","author":"Walker","year":"2005","journal-title":"Behav. Brain Sci."},{"key":"B64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1016\/S0278-2626(20)30179-2","article-title":"Does a test of functional memory during the post-acute period predict long-term outcome of traumatic brain injury?","volume":"44","author":"Wiseman","year":"2000","journal-title":"Brain Cogn."},{"key":"B65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"11515","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.6759-10.201","article-title":"Movement observation improves early consolidation of motor memory.","volume":"31","author":"Zhang","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Human Neuroscience"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fnhum.2022.940075\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,2]],"date-time":"2024-10-02T21:44:32Z","timestamp":1727905472000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fnhum.2022.940075\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,31]]},"references-count":65,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fnhum.2022.940075"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fnhum.2022.940075","relation":{},"ISSN":["1662-5161"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1662-5161","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,31]]},"article-number":"940075"}}