{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,23]],"date-time":"2026-03-23T15:47:04Z","timestamp":1774280824565,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":46,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,22]],"date-time":"2023-02-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1677024000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Hum. Neurosci."],"abstract":"<jats:sec><jats:title>Introduction<\/jats:title><jats:p>The cognitive map is an internal representation of the environment and allows us to navigate through familiar environments. It preserves the distances and directions between landmarks which help us orient ourselves in our surroundings. The aim of our task was to understand the role played by theta waves in the cognitive map and especially how the cognitive map is recalled and how the manipulation of distances and directions occurs within the cognitive map.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Method<\/jats:title><jats:p>In order to investigate the neural correlates of the cognitive map, we used the Cognitive Map Recall Test, in which 33 participants had to estimate distances and directions between familiar landmarks tailored to their own knowledge. We examined the role of theta waves in the cognitive map, as well as the brain regions that generated them. To that aim, we performed electroencephalographic source imaging while focusing on frequency spectral analysis.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Results<\/jats:title><jats:p>We observed increases of theta amplitude in the frontal, temporal, parahippocampal gyri and temporal poles during the recall of the cognitive map. We also found increases of theta amplitude in the temporal pole and retrosplenial cortex during manipulation of directions. Overall, direction processing induces higher theta amplitude than distance processing, especially in the temporal lobe, and higher theta amplitude during recall compared to manipulation, except in the retrosplenial cortex where this pattern was reversed.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Discussion<\/jats:title><jats:p>We reveal the role of theta waves as a marker of directional processing in the retrosplenial cortex and the temporal poles during the manipulation of spatial information. Increases in theta waves in frontal, parahippocampal, temporal and temporal pole regions appear to be markers of working memory and cognitive map recall. Therefore, our Cognitive Map Recall Test could be useful for testing directional difficulties in patients. Our work also shows that there are two distinct parts to the cognitive map test: recall and manipulation of spatial information. This is often considered as two similar processes in the literature, but our work demonstrates that these processes could be different, with theta waves from different brain regions contributing to either recall or manipulation; this should be considered in future studies.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2023.1062064","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,22]],"date-time":"2023-02-22T08:10:48Z","timestamp":1677053448000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Electrophysiological correlates of distance and direction processing during cognitive map retrieval: A source analysis"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"M\u00e9lanie","family":"Teixeira De Almeida","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Martin","family":"Seeber","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Katherina","family":"Gschwend","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Roland","family":"Maurer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Igor","family":"Faulmann","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Nicolas","family":"Burra","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nicl.2014.06.005","article-title":"Head model and electrical source imaging: a study of 38 epileptic patients","volume":"5","author":"Birot","year":"2014","journal-title":"NeuroImage Clin."},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"487","DOI":"10.1089\/109493103769710514","article-title":"Spatial navigation in virtual reality environments: an EEG analysis","volume":"6","author":"Bischof","year":"2003","journal-title":"CyberPsychol. Behav."},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1155\/2011\/813870","article-title":"Spatiotemporal analysis of multichannel EEG: CARTOOL. Comput","volume":"2011","author":"Brunet","year":"2011","journal-title":"Intell. Neurosci"},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1493","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2001.0948","article-title":"Memory for events and their spatial context: models and experiments","volume":"356","author":"Burgess","year":"2001","journal-title":"Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci."},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"625","DOI":"10.1016\/S0896-6273(02)00830-9","article-title":"The Human hippocampus and spatial and episodic memory","volume":"35","author":"Burgess","year":"2002","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"340","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-295X.114.2.340","article-title":"Remembering the past and imagining the future: a neural model of spatial memory and imagery","volume":"114","author":"Byrne","year":"2007","journal-title":"Psychol. Rev."},{"key":"B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"736778","DOI":"10.3389\/fnbeh.2021.736778","article-title":"Spatial recognition memory: differential brain strategic activation according to sex","volume":"15","author":"Castillo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Behav. Neurosci."},{"key":"B8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"208","DOI":"10.3758\/s13423-012-0351-6","article-title":"Neural evidence supports a novel framework for spatial navigation","volume":"20","author":"Chrastil","year":"2013","journal-title":"Psychonom. Bull. Rev."},{"key":"B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"192","DOI":"10.1097\/00004728-199403000-00005","article-title":"Automatic 3D intersubject registration of MR volumetric data in standardized Talairach space","volume":"18","author":"Collins","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Comput. Assist. Tomogr."},{"key":"B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"527","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2003.09.051","article-title":"Electrical neuroimaging based on biophysical constraints","volume":"21","author":"de Peralta Menendez","year":"2004","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1080\/23279095.2016.1247094","article-title":"Cognitive map recall test: a new specific test to assess topographical disorientation","volume":"25","author":"Descloux","year":"2018","journal-title":"Appl. Neuropsychol. Adult"},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"388","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2008.07.004","article-title":"Parahippocampal and retrosplenial contributions to human spatial navigation","volume":"12","author":"Epstein","year":"2008","journal-title":"Trends Cogn. Sci."},{"key":"B13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1504","DOI":"10.1038\/nn.4656","article-title":"The cognitive map in humans: spatial navigation and beyond","volume":"20","author":"Epstein","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"key":"B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"130","DOI":"10.3389\/fnbeh.2020.00130","article-title":"Neuroanatomic correlates of distance and direction processing during cognitive map retrieval","volume":"14","author":"Faulmann","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Behav. Neurosci."},{"key":"B15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"462","DOI":"10.1037\/0894-4105.18.3.462","article-title":"Allocentric versus egocentric spatial memory after unilateral temporal lobectomy in humans","volume":"18","author":"Feigenbaum","year":"2004","journal-title":"Neuropsychology"},{"key":"B16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci7050049","article-title":"Working memory in the prefrontal cortex","volume":"7","author":"Funahashi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Brain Sci."},{"key":"B17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"226","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cogbrainres.2004.02.012","article-title":"Brain areas underlying visual mental imagery and visual perception: an fMRI study","volume":"20","author":"Ganis","year":"2004","journal-title":"Cogn. Brain Res."},{"key":"B18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1006\/nimg.2002.1161","article-title":"Maintenance and manipulation in spatial working memory: dissociations in the prefrontal cortex","volume":"17","author":"Glahn","year":"2002","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"B19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.56021\/9780801859939","author":"Golledge","year":"1999","journal-title":"Wayfinding Behavior: Cognitive Mapping and Other Spatial Processes"},{"key":"B20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1016\/j.beproc.2016.12.012","article-title":"The representation of space in the brain","volume":"135","author":"Grieves","year":"2017","journal-title":"Behav. Process."},{"key":"B21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1007\/s00429-012-0391-8","article-title":"Structure\u2013function relationship of working memory activity with hippocampal and prefrontal cortex volumes","volume":"218","author":"Harms","year":"2013","journal-title":"Brain Struct. Funct."},{"key":"B22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"14365","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.4549-07.2007","article-title":"Using imagination to understand the neural basis of episodic memory","volume":"27","author":"Hassabis","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"B23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1331","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2014.05.001","article-title":"The hippocampus and entorhinal cortex encode the path and Euclidean distances to goals during navigation","volume":"24","author":"Howard","year":"2014","journal-title":"Curr. Biol."},{"key":"B24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"673","DOI":"10.1038\/nn1257","article-title":"Selective neural representation of objects relevant for navigation","volume":"7","author":"Janzen","year":"2004","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"key":"B25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1093\/acprof:oso\/9780198515241.001.0001","author":"Jeffery","year":"2003","journal-title":"The Neurobiology of Spatial Behaviour"},{"key":"B26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1395","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1460-9568.2002.01975.x","article-title":"Frontal theta activity in humans increases with memory load in a working memory task","volume":"15","author":"Jensen","year":"2002","journal-title":"Eur. J. Neurosci."},{"key":"B27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"781","DOI":"10.1038\/21645","article-title":"Human theta oscillations exhibit task dependence during virtual maze navigation","volume":"399","author":"Kahana","year":"1999","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"656","DOI":"10.1002\/hipo.22255","article-title":"Medial prefrontal theta phase coupling during spatial memory retrieval","volume":"24","author":"Kaplan","year":"2014","journal-title":"Hippocampus"},{"key":"B29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"148","DOI":"10.1038\/20178","article-title":"The role of the anterior prefrontal cortex in human cognition","volume":"399","author":"Koechlin","year":"1999","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"B30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2015.07.009","article-title":"EEG correlates of spatial orientation in the human retrosplenial complex","volume":"120","author":"Lin","year":"2015","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"B31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1434","DOI":"10.1038\/nn.4661","article-title":"Viewpoints: how the hippocampus contributes to memory, navigation and cognition","volume":"20","author":"Lisman","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"key":"B32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"461","DOI":"10.1016\/S0010-9452(08)70768-8","article-title":"A neurological dissociation between preserved visual and impaired spatial processing in mental imagery","volume":"34","author":"Luzzatti","year":"1998","journal-title":"Cortex"},{"key":"B33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2894","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awl286","article-title":"Navigation around London by a taxi driver with bilateral hippocampal lesions","volume":"129","author":"Maguire","year":"2006","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"B34","author":"Maurer","year":"2016","journal-title":"CMRT-Gen"},{"key":"B35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"774","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropsychologia.2007.10.005","article-title":"Two visual systems re-viewed","volume":"46","author":"Milner","year":"2008","journal-title":"Neuropsychologia"},{"key":"B36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"411","DOI":"10.1037\/0278-7393.28.3.411","article-title":"Access to information in working memory: exploring the focus of attention","volume":"28","author":"Oberauer","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Exp. Psychol. Learn. Mem. Cogn."},{"key":"B37","author":"Purves","year":"2004","journal-title":"Neuroscience, 3rd Edn."},{"key":"B38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"826","DOI":"10.1002\/hipo.10218","article-title":"\u201cI have often walked down this street before\u201d: fMRI studies on the hippocampus and other structures during mental navigation of an old environment","volume":"14","author":"Rosenbaum","year":"2004","journal-title":"Hippocampus"},{"key":"B39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1016\/S0065-2407(08)60007-5","article-title":"The development of spatial representations of large-scale environments","volume":"10","author":"Siegel","year":"1975","journal-title":"Adv. Child Dev. Behav."},{"key":"B40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"618","DOI":"10.1002\/hipo.20298","article-title":"A navigational guidance system in the human brain","volume":"17","author":"Spiers","year":"","journal-title":"Hippocampus"},{"key":"B41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroscience.2007.06.056","article-title":"The neuroscience of remote spatial memory: a tale of two cities","volume":"149","author":"Spiers","year":"","journal-title":"Neuroscience"},{"key":"B42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"285","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2005.09.025","article-title":"Ecphory of autobiographical memories: an fMRI study of recent and remote memory retrieval","volume":"30","author":"Steinvorth","year":"2006","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"B43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1037\/h0061626","article-title":"Cognitive maps in rats and men","volume":"55","author":"Tolman","year":"1948","journal-title":"Psychol. Rev."},{"key":"B44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"792","DOI":"10.1038\/nrn2733","article-title":"What does the retrosplenial cortex do?","volume":"10","author":"Vann","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"B45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"686","DOI":"10.1162\/jocn_a_00098","article-title":"Brain oscillatory activity during spatial navigation: theta and gamma activity link medial temporal and parietal regions","volume":"24","author":"White","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Cogn. Neurosci."},{"key":"B46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1106","DOI":"10.3758\/s13421-014-0418-x","article-title":"Different \u201croutes\u201d to a cognitive map: dissociable forms of spatial knowledge derived from route and cartographic map learning","volume":"42","author":"Zhang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mem. Cognit."}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Human Neuroscience"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fnhum.2023.1062064\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,22]],"date-time":"2023-02-22T08:11:02Z","timestamp":1677053462000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fnhum.2023.1062064\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,22]]},"references-count":46,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fnhum.2023.1062064"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fnhum.2023.1062064","relation":{},"ISSN":["1662-5161"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1662-5161","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,22]]},"article-number":"1062064"}}