{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,2]],"date-time":"2026-09-02T23:05:09Z","timestamp":1788390309077,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":48,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,14]],"date-time":"2024-08-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1723593600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Hum. Neurosci."],"abstract":"<jats:sec><jats:title>Objective<\/jats:title><jats:p>This study aimed to explore the impact of exercise training modes on sensory and motor-related cortex excitability using functional near-infrared spectroscopy technology (fNIRS) and reveal specific cortical effects.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Materials and methods<\/jats:title><jats:p>Twenty participants with no known health conditions took part in a study involving passive, active, and resistance tasks facilitated by an upper-limb robot, using a block design. The participants wore functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) devices throughout the experiment to monitor changes in cortical blood oxygen levels during the tasks. The fNIRS optode coverage primarily targeted key areas of the brain cortex, including the primary motor cortex (M1), primary somatosensory cortex (S1), supplementary motor area (SMA), and premotor cortex (PMC) on both hemispheres. The study evaluated cortical activation areas, intensity, and lateralization values.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Results<\/jats:title><jats:p>Passive movement primarily activates M1 and part of S1, while active movement mainly activates contralateral M1 and S1. Resistance training activates brain regions in both hemispheres, including contralateral M1, S1, SMA, and PMC, as well as ipsilateral M1, S1, SMA, and PMC. Resistance movement also activates the ipsilateral sensorimotor cortex (S1, SMA, PMC) more than active or passive movement. Active movement has higher contralateral activation in M1 compared to passive movement. Resistance and active movements increase brain activity more than passive movement. Different movements activate various cortical areas equally on both sides, but lateralization differs. The correlation between lateralization of brain regions is significant in the right cortex but not in the left cortex during three movement patterns.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title><jats:p>All types of exercise boost motor cortex excitability, but resistance exercise activates both sides of the motor cortex more extensively. The PMC is crucial for intense workouts. The right cortex shows better coordination during motor tasks than the left. fNIRS findings can help determine the length of treatment sessions.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2024.1419140","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,14]],"date-time":"2024-08-14T06:09:07Z","timestamp":1723615747000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":13,"title":["Cortical response characteristics of passive, active, and resistance movements: a multi-channel fNRIS study"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"18","author":[{"given":"Wenxi","family":"Li","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Guangyue","family":"Zhu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yichen","family":"Jiang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Cheng","family":"Miao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Guohui","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dongsheng","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","first-page":"378","article-title":"Low-frequency rTMS in patients with subacute ischemic stroke: clinical evaluation of short and long-term outcomes and neurophysiological assessment of cortical excitability","volume":"8","author":"Blesneag","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Med. Life"},{"key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neulet.2018.09.032","article-title":"Inhibitory and facilitatory connections from dorsolateral prefrontal to primary motor cortex in healthy humans at rest\u2014An rTMS study","volume":"687","author":"Cao","year":"2018","journal-title":"Neurosci. Lett."},{"key":"ref3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"194","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2017.00194","article-title":"The optimal speed for cortical activation of passive wrist movements performed by a rehabilitation robot: a functional NIRS study","volume":"11","author":"Chang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Hum. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"11820","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-68711-x","article-title":"Passive training with upper extremity exoskeleton robot affects proprioceptive acuity and performance of motor learning","volume":"10","author":"Chiyohara","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1675","DOI":"10.3174\/ajnr.A4345","article-title":"Cortical activation through passive-motion functional MRI","volume":"36","author":"Choudhri","year":"2015","journal-title":"Am. J. Neuroradiol."},{"key":"ref6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"494","DOI":"10.1016\/j.humov.2010.03.003","article-title":"Corticomotor excitability of wrist flexor and extensor muscles during active and passive movement","volume":"29","author":"Chye","year":"2010","journal-title":"Hum. Mov. Sci."},{"key":"ref7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.1002\/j.2048-7940.2007.tb00183.x","article-title":"Barriers and facilitators to exercise among stroke survivors","volume":"32","author":"Damush","year":"2007","journal-title":"Rehabil. Nurs."},{"key":"ref8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"106789","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jstrokecerebrovasdis.2022.106789","article-title":"Revisiting dose and intensity of training: opportunities to enhance recovery following stroke","volume":"31","author":"Donnellan-Fernandez","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Stroke Cerebrovasc. Dis."},{"key":"ref9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"pzad002","DOI":"10.1093\/ptj\/pzad002","article-title":"Efficacy and dose of rehabilitation approaches for severe upper limb impairments and disability during early acute and subacute stroke: a systematic review","volume":"103","author":"Doumen","year":"2023","journal-title":"Phys. Ther."},{"key":"ref10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"731","DOI":"10.1007\/s10548-014-0355-9","article-title":"A reliability study on brain activation during active and passive arm movements supported by an MRI-compatible robot","volume":"27","author":"Est\u00e9vez","year":"2014","journal-title":"Brain Topogr."},{"key":"ref11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"164","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bandc.2013.11.010","article-title":"Brain lateralization of complex movement: neuropsychological evidence from unilateral stroke","volume":"84","author":"Flores-Medina","year":"2014","journal-title":"Brain Cogn."},{"key":"ref12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1159\/000366099","article-title":"Comparative functional MRI study to assess brain activation upon active and passive finger movements in patients with cerebral infarction","volume":"73","author":"Fu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eur. Neurol."},{"key":"ref13","first-page":"1091","article-title":"Effects of activity repetition training with Salat (prayer) versus task oriented training on functional outcomes of stroke","volume":"67","author":"Ghous","year":"2017","journal-title":"JPMA J. Pak. Med. Assoc."},{"key":"ref14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5820","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.1923-19.2020","article-title":"Cortical, corticospinal, and reticulospinal contributions to strength training","volume":"40","author":"Glover","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"574","DOI":"10.1136\/jnnp.73.5.574","article-title":"Lateralised motor control: hemispheric damage and the loss of deftness","volume":"73","author":"Hanna-Pladdy","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.15171\/jcs.2019.006","article-title":"The effect of early passive range of motion exercise on motor function of people with stroke: a randomized controlled trial","volume":"8","author":"Hosseini","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Caring Sci."},{"key":"ref17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"jrm00323","DOI":"10.2340\/jrm.v54.1407","article-title":"Feasibility and potential effects of robot-assisted passive range of motion training in combination with conventional rehabilitation on hand function in patients with chronic stroke","volume":"54","author":"Hsu","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Rehabil. Med."},{"key":"ref18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1024163","DOI":"10.3389\/fnagi.2022.1024163","article-title":"Rehabilitation of motor function after stroke: a bibliometric analysis of global research from 2004 to 2022","volume":"14","author":"Hu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Aging Neurosci."},{"key":"ref19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1691","DOI":"10.18502\/fbt.v6i2.1691","article-title":"Assessment of brain cortical activation in passive movement during wrist task using functional near infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS)","volume":"6","author":"Jalalvandi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Biomed. Technol."},{"key":"ref20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4408","DOI":"10.1080\/09638288.2021.1907459","article-title":"How active are stroke patients in physiotherapy sessions and is this associated with stroke severity?","volume":"44","author":"James","year":"2022","journal-title":"Disabil. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1179\/1074935714Z.0000000035","article-title":"Effect of task-oriented training for people with stroke: a meta-analysis focused on repetitive or circuit training","volume":"22","author":"Jeon","year":"2015","journal-title":"Top. Stroke Rehabil."},{"key":"ref22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1876","DOI":"10.1589\/jpts.28.1876","article-title":"Analysis of scapular kinematics during active and passive arm elevation","volume":"28","author":"Kai","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Phys. Ther. Sci."},{"key":"ref23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1097\/NPT.0b013e31819824f0","article-title":"Reorganization of brain function during force production after stroke: a systematic review of the literature","volume":"33","author":"Kokotilo","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Neurol. Phys. Ther."},{"key":"ref24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"224","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(14)70160-7","article-title":"Constraint-induced movement therapy after stroke","volume":"14","author":"Kwakkel","year":"2015","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol."},{"key":"ref25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"12739","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph191912739","article-title":"Effectiveness of rehabilitation exercise in improving physical function of stroke patients: a systematic review","volume":"19","author":"Lee","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health"},{"key":"ref26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2859","DOI":"10.1364\/BOE.9.002859","article-title":"Distinction of directional coupling in sensorimotor networks between active and passive finger movements using fNIRS","volume":"9","author":"Lee","year":"2018","journal-title":"Biomed. Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1042254","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2023.1042254","article-title":"Upper limb intelligent feedback robot training significantly activates the cerebral cortex and promotes the functional connectivity of the cerebral cortex in patients with stroke: a functional near-infrared spectroscopy study","volume":"14","author":"Li","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front. Neurol."},{"key":"ref28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1080\/16501970410023434","article-title":"Effects of passive-active movement training on upper limb motor function and cortical activation in chronic patients with stroke: a pilot study","volume":"36","author":"Lindberg","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Rehabil. Med."},{"key":"ref29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"866","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awg079","article-title":"Motor learning elicited by voluntary drive","volume":"126","author":"Lotze","year":"2003","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"ref30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1808","DOI":"10.1093\/cercor\/bhx096","article-title":"Left brain asymmetry of the planum temporale in a nonhominid primate: redefining the origin of brain specialization for language","volume":"28","author":"Marie","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cereb. Cortex"},{"key":"ref31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"455","DOI":"10.1080\/00222895.2012.747482","article-title":"The effects of brain lateralization on motor control and adaptation","volume":"44","author":"Mutha","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Mot. Behav."},{"key":"ref32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"116023","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2019.116023","article-title":"Cortical activation through passive-motion functional MRI","volume":"202","author":"Nasrallah","year":"2019","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"ref33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"971","DOI":"10.3390\/sym14050971","article-title":"Cognitive and neurophysiological models of brain asymmetry","volume":"14","author":"Ocklenburg","year":"2022","journal-title":"Symmetry"},{"key":"ref34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1298\/ptr.R0001","article-title":"Cortical excitability following passive movement","volume":"21","author":"Onishi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Phys. Ther. Res."},{"key":"ref35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.3233\/NRE-192829","article-title":"Game-based hand resistance exercise versus traditional manual hand exercises for improving hand strength, motor function, and compliance in stroke patients: a multi-center randomized controlled study","volume":"45","author":"Park","year":"2019","journal-title":"NeuroRehabilitation"},{"key":"ref36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1257","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apmr.2006.05.026","article-title":"Changes in motoneuron excitability in hemiplegic subjects after passive exercise when using a robotic arm","volume":"87","author":"Patel","year":"2006","journal-title":"Arch. Phys. Med. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref37","first-page":"3547","article-title":"Can passive mobilization provide clinically-relevant brain stimulation? A pilot eeg and nirs study on healthy subjects","author":"Pittaccio","year":"2013"},{"key":"ref38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.1007\/s00221-001-0913-8","article-title":"Evidence for a dynamic-dominance hypothesis of handedness","volume":"142","author":"Sainburg","year":"2002","journal-title":"Exp. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"313","DOI":"10.1016\/bs.pbr.2014.12.003","article-title":"Cortical mechanisms underlying sensorimotor enhancement promoted by walking with haptic inputs in a virtual environment","volume":"218","author":"Sangani","year":"2015","journal-title":"Prog. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"685920","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2021.685920","article-title":"Response of the cerebral cortex to resistance and non-resistance exercise under different trajectories: a functional near-infrared spectroscopy study","volume":"15","author":"Shi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1107","DOI":"10.1007\/s40279-020-01258-z","article-title":"Determining the sites of neural adaptations to resistance training: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"50","author":"Siddique","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sports Med."},{"key":"ref42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"675","DOI":"10.1007\/s00421-020-04567-3","article-title":"The knowns and unknowns of neural adaptations to resistance training","volume":"121","author":"\u0160karabot","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur. J. Appl. Physiol."},{"key":"ref43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1016\/S0004-9514(05)70036-2","article-title":"Effectiveness of exercise therapy: a best-evidence summary of systematic reviews","volume":"51","author":"Smidt","year":"2005","journal-title":"Aust. J. Physiother."},{"key":"ref44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1365","DOI":"10.1007\/s40279-019-01146-1","article-title":"Physiological impact and clinical relevance of passive exercise\/movement","volume":"49","author":"Trinity","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sports Med."},{"key":"ref45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1173","DOI":"10.1177\/0269215520932964","article-title":"Resistance training in stroke rehabilitation: systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"34","author":"Veldema","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"147935","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brainres.2022.147935","article-title":"Cortical mapping of active and passive upper limb training in stroke patients and healthy people: a functional near-infrared spectroscopy study","volume":"1788","author":"Xia","year":"2022","journal-title":"Brain Res."},{"key":"ref47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"904","DOI":"10.1177\/0269215516663009","article-title":"Effectiveness and safety of Chinese massage therapy (Tui Na) on post-stroke spasticity: a prospective multicenter randomized controlled trial","volume":"31","author":"Yang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Clin. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"479","DOI":"10.1097\/WNR.0000000000001615","article-title":"Effects of passive and active training modes of upper-limb rehabilitation robot on cortical activation: a functional near-infrared spectroscopy study","volume":"32","author":"Zheng","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neuroreport"}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Human Neuroscience"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fnhum.2024.1419140\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,14]],"date-time":"2024-08-14T06:09:10Z","timestamp":1723615750000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fnhum.2024.1419140\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,14]]},"references-count":48,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fnhum.2024.1419140"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fnhum.2024.1419140","relation":{},"ISSN":["1662-5161"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1662-5161","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,14]]},"article-number":"1419140"}}