{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,27]],"date-time":"2026-10-27T22:32:24Z","timestamp":1793140344724,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":55,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,26]],"date-time":"2024-09-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1727308800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Hum. Neurosci."],"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Introduction<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Several clinical studies have demonstrated that brain-computer interfaces (BCIs) controlled functional electrical stimulation (FES) facilitate neurological recovery in patients with stroke. This review aims to evaluate the effectiveness of BCI-FES training on upper limb functional recovery in stroke patients.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>PubMed, Embase, Cochrane Library, Science Direct and Web of Science were systematically searched from inception to October 2023. Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) employing BCI-FES training were included. The methodological quality of the RCTs was assessed using the PEDro scale. Meta-analysis was conducted using RevMan 5.4.1 and STATA 18.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      The meta-analysis comprised 290 patients from 10 RCTs. Results showed a moderate effect size in upper limb function recovery through BCI-FES training (SMD\u2009=\u20090.50, 95% CI: 0.26\u20130.73, I\n                      <jats:sup>2<\/jats:sup>\n                      =\u20090%,\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      &amp;lt;\u20090.0001). Subgroup analysis revealed that BCI-FES training significantly enhanced upper limb motor function in BCI-FES vs. FES group (SMD\u2009=\u20090.37, 95% CI: 0.00\u20130.74, I\n                      <jats:sup>2<\/jats:sup>\n                      =\u200921%,\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      =\u20090.05), and the BCI-FES\u2009+\u2009CR vs. CR group (SMD\u2009=\u20090.61, 95% CI: 0.28\u20130.95, I\n                      <jats:sup>2<\/jats:sup>\n                      =\u20090%,\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      =\u20090.0003). Moreover, BCI-FES training demonstrated effectiveness in both subacute (SMD\u2009=\u20090.56, 95% CI: 0.25\u20130.87, I\n                      <jats:sup>2<\/jats:sup>\n                      =\u20090%,\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      =\u20090.0004) and chronic groups (SMD\u2009=\u20090.42, 95% CI: 0.05\u20130.78, I\n                      <jats:sup>2<\/jats:sup>\n                      =\u200945%,\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      =\u20090.02). Subgroup analysis showed that both adjusting (SMD\u2009=\u20090.55, 95% CI: 0.24\u20130.87, I\n                      <jats:sup>2<\/jats:sup>\n                      =\u20090%,\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      =\u20090.0006) and fixing (SMD\u2009=\u20090.43, 95% CI: 0.07\u20130.78, I\n                      <jats:sup>2<\/jats:sup>\n                      =\u200946%,\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      =\u20090.02). BCI thresholds before training significantly improved motor function in stroke patients. Both motor imagery (MI) (SMD\u2009=\u20090.41 95% CI: 0.12\u20130.71, I\n                      <jats:sup>2<\/jats:sup>\n                      =\u200913%,\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      =\u20090.006) and action observation (AO) (SMD\u2009=\u20090.73, 95% CI: 0.26\u20131.20, I\n                      <jats:sup>2<\/jats:sup>\n                      =\u20090%,\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      =\u20090.002) as mental tasks significantly improved upper limb function in stroke patients.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Discussion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>BCI-FES has significant immediate effects on upper limb function in subacute and chronic stroke patients, but evidence for its long-term impact remains limited. Using AO as the mental task may be a more effective BCI-FES training strategy.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Systematic review registration<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Identifier: CRD42023485744,\n                      <jats:uri>https:\/\/www.crd.york.ac.uk\/prospero\/display_record.php?ID=CRD42023485744<\/jats:uri>\n                      .\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2024.1438095","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,26]],"date-time":"2024-09-26T00:47:33Z","timestamp":1727311653000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":50,"title":["The effect of brain-computer interface controlled functional electrical stimulation training on rehabilitation of upper limb after stroke: a systematic review and meta-analysis"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"18","author":[{"given":"Chunlin","family":"Ren","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xinmin","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Qian","family":"Gao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mengyang","family":"Pan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jing","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fangjie","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zhenfei","family":"Duan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Pengxue","family":"Guo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yasu","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"848","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2013.00848","article-title":"Gamma band activity associated with BCI performance: simultaneous MEG\/EEG study","volume":"7","author":"Ahn","year":"2013","journal-title":"Front. 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