{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,31]],"date-time":"2025-12-31T18:06:08Z","timestamp":1767204368155,"version":"build-2238731810"},"reference-count":108,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1760054400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"JSPS KAKENHI","award":["JP24K00508"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JP24K00508"]}]},{"name":"JSPS KAKENHI","award":["JP21K18560"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JP21K18560"]}]},{"name":"JSPS KAKENHI","award":["JP19H01256"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JP19H01256"]}]},{"name":"JSPS KAKENHI","award":["JP23H05493"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JP23H05493"]}]},{"name":"JSPS KAKENHI","award":["JP19H05589"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JP19H05589"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100008884","name":"Nakatani Foundation for Advancement of Measuring Technologies in Biomedical Engineering","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100008884","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004398","name":"Mitsubishi Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004398","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Hum. Neurosci."],"abstract":"<jats:p>Dyslexia is a prevalent developmental disorder marked by deficits in literacy skills. Given that the core deficits of dyslexia are uniquely human, animal models have not been as useful in dyslexia research as they have been in other areas of research. While significant progress has been made through behavioral and neuroimaging studies, a viable model could facilitate controlled investigations into the neural mechanisms underlying dyslexia and accelerate the development of targeted interventions. In this hypothesis article, we propose a two-pronged approach to model dyslexia in neurotypical adults using neuroimaging and neuromodulation techniques. First, we propose using functional and structural MRI data to cluster individuals into neuropathologically derived subgroups in order to facilitate the classification of dyslexia subtypes based on neuropathological characteristics. Second, we propose employing transcranial temporal interference stimulation (tTIS) to temporarily downregulate activity in brain regions specified in the clustering analysis, inducing subtype-specific dyslexic symptoms in neurotypical individuals. This approach enables the establishment of causal or probabilistic relationships between neuropathologies and dyslexia subtypes, while at the same time creating dyslexia models to facilitate investigation into subtype-specific interventions. Although this model is somewhat limited by the transient nature of neuromodulation as well as by the use of healthy adults to model a developmental disorder whose symptoms first arise in childhood, it is a meaningful step towards refining our understanding of the neural basis of dyslexia subtypes and it opens the door to novel and effective therapies. By integrating neuroimaging and neuromodulation, we hope to offer a viable substitute for animal models in dyslexia and accelerate the development of personalized therapeutic strategies for dyslexia.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2025.1651332","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T05:28:07Z","timestamp":1760074087000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Modeling dyslexia in neurotypical adults by combining neuroimaging and neuromodulation techniques: a hypothesis paper"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"19","author":[{"given":"Daniel","family":"Gallagher","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Zian","family":"Huang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Shinri","family":"Ohta","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","author":"Abdi","year":"2003"},{"key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1221","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brs.2022.08.018","article-title":"A minimum effective dose for (transcranial) alternating current stimulation","volume":"15","author":"Alekseichuk","year":"2022","journal-title":"Brain Stimul."},{"key":"ref3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"322","DOI":"10.1038\/nrn3465","article-title":"Imaging structural co-variance between human brain regions","volume":"14","author":"Alexander-Bloch","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.7717\/PEERJ-CS.2077","article-title":"Deep learning-driven dyslexia detection model using multi-modality data","volume":"10","author":"Alkhurayyif","year":"2024","journal-title":"PeerJ Comput. Sci."},{"key":"ref5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1774","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinph.2017.06.001","article-title":"Low intensity transcranial electric stimulation: safety, ethical, legal regulatory and application guidelines","volume":"128","author":"Antal","year":"2017","journal-title":"Clin. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2013.00317","article-title":"Transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS)","volume":"7","author":"Antal","year":"2013","journal-title":"Front. Hum. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"543","DOI":"10.1080\/23273798.2020.1859569","article-title":"Reading-related functional activity in children with isolated spelling deficits and dyslexia","volume":"36","author":"Banfi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lang. Cogn. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.18112\/openneuro.ds003126.v1.3.1.","article-title":"Reading-related functional activity in children with isolated spelling deficits and dyslexia","author":"Banfi","year":"2022","journal-title":"OpenNeuro"},{"key":"ref9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2017","DOI":"10.1080\/00207450903139671","article-title":"Dyslexic children show short-term memory deficits in phonological storage and serial rehearsal: an fMRI study","volume":"119","author":"Beneventi","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1162\/jocn_a_01591","article-title":"Inferring causality from noninvasive brain stimulation in cognitive neuroscience","volume":"33","author":"Bergmann","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Cogn. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1251","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1244333","article-title":"Intact but less accessible phonetic representations in adults with dyslexia","volume":"342","author":"Boets","year":"2013","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"746","DOI":"10.1038\/271746a0","article-title":"Difficulties in auditory organisation as a possible cause of reading backwardness","volume":"271","author":"Bradley","year":"1978","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"18728","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-75111-8","article-title":"Visual word form processing deficits driven by severity of reading impairments in children with developmental dyslexia","volume":"10","author":"Brem","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"874","DOI":"10.1037\/0012-1649.28.5.874","article-title":"Persistence of dyslexics\u2019 phonological awareness deficits","volume":"28","author":"Bruck","year":"1992","journal-title":"Dev. Psychol."},{"key":"ref15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"162","DOI":"10.3389\/fnbeh.2018.00162","article-title":"TDCS modulatory effect on reading processes: a review of studies on typical readers and individuals with dyslexia","volume":"12","author":"Cancer","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Behav. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3389\/fnana.2023.1128193","article-title":"Comparing the effects of transcranial alternating current and temporal interference (tTIS) electric stimulation through whole-brain mapping of c-Fos immunoreactivity","volume":"17","author":"Carmona-Barr\u00f3n","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front. Neuroanat."},{"key":"ref17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0211652","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0211652","article-title":"Conserved regulation of neurodevelopmental processes and behavior by FoxP in Drosophila","volume":"14","author":"Castells-Nobau","year":"2019","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"ref18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"214","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneuroling.2012.08.001","article-title":"Reading the reading brain: a new meta-analysis of functional imaging data on reading","volume":"26","author":"Cattinelli","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Neurol."},{"key":"ref19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.18112\/openneuro.ds004786.v1.0.1","article-title":"MorphoSem","author":"Cavalli","year":"2023","journal-title":"OpenNeuro"},{"key":"ref20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4895","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.4202-15.2016","article-title":"Knockdown of dyslexia-gene Dcdc2 interferes with speech sound discrimination in continuous streams","volume":"36","author":"Centanni","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1753","DOI":"10.1093\/cercor\/bht028","article-title":"Knockdown of the dyslexia-associated gene Kiaa0319 impairs temporal responses to speech stimuli in rat primary auditory cortex","volume":"24","author":"Centanni","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cereb. Cortex"},{"key":"ref22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e100552","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0100552","article-title":"Brain bases of reading fluency in typical reading and impaired fluency in dyslexia","volume":"9","author":"Christodoulou","year":"2014","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"ref23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2953","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropsychologia.2013.10.018","article-title":"How to improve reading skills in dyslexics: the effect of high frequency rTMS","volume":"51","author":"Costanzo","year":"2013","journal-title":"Neuropsychologia"},{"key":"ref24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropsychologia.2018.03.016","article-title":"Long-lasting improvement following tDCS treatment combined with a training for reading in children and adolescents with dyslexia","volume":"130","author":"Costanzo","year":"2019","journal-title":"Neuropsychologia"},{"key":"ref25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"471","DOI":"10.1016\/0028-3932(76)90075-0","article-title":"Rapid \u2018automatized\u2019 naming (R.A.N.): dyslexia differentiated from other learning disabilities","volume":"14","author":"Denckla","year":"1976","journal-title":"Neuropsychologia"},{"key":"ref26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"610","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awl331","article-title":"Stimulating language: Insights from TMS","volume":"130","author":"Devlin","year":"2007","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"ref27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"637","DOI":"10.18502\/acta.v58i12.5156","article-title":"Comparing the effectiveness of the transcranial alternating current stimulation (TACS) and ritalin on symptoms of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in 7-14-year-old children","volume":"58","author":"Farokhzadi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Acta Med. Iran."},{"key":"ref28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1177\/1073858416631966","article-title":"Transcranial electrical stimulation: what we know and do not know about mechanisms","volume":"23","author":"Fertonani","year":"2017","journal-title":"Neuroscientist"},{"key":"ref1001","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1101\/2025.05.04.651804","article-title":"Modeling dyslexia in neurotypical adults by combining neuroimaging and neuromodulation techniques: a hypothesis paper","author":"Gallagher","year":"2025","journal-title":"bioRxiv."},{"key":"ref29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1101\/2022.12.19.520902","article-title":"Causal evidence for the involvement of Broca\u2019s area in second language acquisition: a longitudinal HD-tDCS study","author":"Gallagher","year":"2022","journal-title":"bioRxiv"},{"key":"ref30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"511","DOI":"10.1038\/nn.3063","article-title":"Cortical oscillations and speech processing: emerging computational principles and operations","volume":"15","author":"Giraud","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"rev.2021","DOI":"10.2463\/mrms.rev.2021-0096","article-title":"Advantages of using both voxel- and surface-based morphometry in cortical morphology analysis: a review of various applications","volume":"21","author":"Goto","year":"2022","journal-title":"Magn. Reson. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1029","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2017.05.024","article-title":"Noninvasive deep brain stimulation via temporally interfering electric fields","volume":"169","author":"Grossman","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"909","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2017.08.003","article-title":"Neural noise hypothesis of developmental dyslexia","volume":"21","author":"Hancock","year":"2017","journal-title":"Trends Cogn. Sci."},{"key":"ref34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1038\/nrg2523","article-title":"The evolution of fox genes and their role in development and disease","volume":"10","author":"Hannenhalli","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Genet."},{"key":"ref35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"640","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropsychologia.2012.01.001","article-title":"N300 indexes deficient integration of orthographic and phonological representations in children with dyslexia","volume":"50","author":"Hasko","year":"2012","journal-title":"Neuropsychologia"},{"key":"ref36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"12835","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.0449-13.2013","article-title":"Decoding the neuroanatomical basis of Reading ability: a multivoxel morphometric study","volume":"33","author":"He","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"503","DOI":"10.18502\/ijps.v18i4.13638","article-title":"An overview on electrophysiological and neuroimaging findings in dyslexia","volume":"18","author":"Hern\u00e1ndez-V\u00e1squez","year":"2023","journal-title":"Iran. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropsychologia.2015.02.022","article-title":"Improved reading measures in adults with dyslexia following transcranial direct current stimulation treatment","volume":"70","author":"Heth","year":"2015","journal-title":"Neuropsychologia"},{"key":"ref39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"602","DOI":"10.1037\/0735-7044.121.3.602","article-title":"Prediction of children\u2019s reading skills using behavioral, functional, and structural neuroimaging measures","volume":"121","author":"Hoeft","year":"2007","journal-title":"Behav. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1001\/archneur.1995.00540250036010","article-title":"Dyslexia and corpus callosum morphology","volume":"52","author":"Hynd","year":"1995","journal-title":"Arch. Neurol."},{"key":"ref41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1697","DOI":"10.1007\/s00429-013-0595-6","article-title":"Cognitive subtypes of dyslexia are characterized by distinct patterns of grey matter volume","volume":"219","author":"Jednor\u00f3g","year":"2014","journal-title":"Brain Struct. Funct."},{"key":"ref42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5427","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-019-13417-6","article-title":"Integrating electric field modeling and neuroimaging to explain inter-individual variability of tACS effects","volume":"10","author":"Kasten","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1177\/0040059918820051","article-title":"The neurobiology of dyslexia","volume":"51","author":"Kearns","year":"2019","journal-title":"Teach. Except. Child."},{"key":"ref44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"519","DOI":"10.1038\/35097076","article-title":"A forkhead-domain gene is mutated in a severe speech and language disorder","volume":"413","author":"Lai","year":"2001","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1441","DOI":"10.1093\/cercor\/bht330","article-title":"The neural correlates of Reading fluency deficits in children","volume":"25","author":"Langer","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cereb. Cortex"},{"key":"ref46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2082","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm11082082","article-title":"Understanding the effects of transcranial electrical stimulation in numerical cognition: a systematic review for clinical translation","volume":"11","author":"Lazzaro","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Clin. Med."},{"key":"ref47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2013.00454","article-title":"Impaired auditory sampling in dyslexia: further evidence from combined fMRI and EEG","volume":"7","author":"Lehongre","year":"2013","journal-title":"Front. Hum. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2014.00378","article-title":"Non-invasive brain stimulation in neurorehabilitation: local and distant effects for motor recovery","volume":"8","author":"Liew","year":"2014","journal-title":"Front. Hum. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"505","DOI":"10.1002\/hbm.24390","article-title":"White matter network connectivity deficits in developmental dyslexia","volume":"40","author":"Lou","year":"2019","journal-title":"Hum. Brain Mapp."},{"key":"ref51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"961","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2013.06.007","article-title":"Enhancement of human cognitive performance using transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)","volume":"85","author":"Luber","year":"2014","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"ref52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2981","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.0907-17.2018","article-title":"Individual differences in reading skill are related to trial-by-trial neural activation variability in the reading network","volume":"38","author":"Malins","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e3000833","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pbio.3000833","article-title":"Selective enhancement of low-gamma activity by tACS improves phonemic processing and reading accuracy in dyslexia","volume":"18","author":"Marchesotti","year":"2020","journal-title":"PLoS Biol."},{"key":"ref54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cnp.2016.12.003","article-title":"Adverse events of tDCS and tACS: a review","volume":"2","author":"Matsumoto","year":"2017","journal-title":"Clin. Neurophysiol. Pract."},{"key":"ref55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1080\/10888438.2019.1706180","article-title":"The multiple deficit model: Progress, problems, and prospects","volume":"24","author":"McGrath","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Stud. Read."},{"key":"ref56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1277","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2012.03.068","article-title":"A generalized form of context-dependent psychophysiological interactions (gPPI): a comparison to standard approaches","volume":"61","author":"McLaren","year":"2012","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"ref57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brs.2019.09.017","article-title":"Cost of focality in TDCS: Interindividual variability in electric fields","volume":"13","author":"Mikkonen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Brain Stimul."},{"key":"ref58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1186\/s42826-022-00128-1","article-title":"Role of animal models in biomedical research: a review","volume":"38","author":"Mukherjee","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lab. Anim. Res."},{"key":"ref59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cortex.2022.10.016","article-title":"Developmental dyslexia, developmental coordination disorder and comorbidity discrimination using multimodal structural and functional neuroimaging","volume":"160","author":"Nemmi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cortex"},{"key":"ref60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.56441\/hilbertpress.2246.5840","volume-title":"CONN functional connectivity toolbox: RRID SCR_009550, release 22. CONN functional connectivity toolbox: RRID SCR_009550, release 22","author":"Nieto-Castanon","year":"2022"},{"key":"ref61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"206","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brs.2008.06.004","article-title":"Transcranial direct current stimulation: state of the art 2008","volume":"1","author":"Nitsche","year":"2008","journal-title":"Brain Stimul."},{"key":"ref62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conb.2014.09.007","article-title":"Neurobiology of dyslexia","volume":"30","author":"Norton","year":"2015","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropsychologia.2014.06.015","article-title":"Functional neuroanatomical evidence for the double-deficit hypothesis of developmental dyslexia","volume":"61","author":"Norton","year":"2014","journal-title":"Neuropsychologia"},{"key":"ref64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cognition.2006.04.008","article-title":"From single to multiple deficit models of developmental disorders","volume":"101","author":"Pennington","year":"2006","journal-title":"Cognition"},{"key":"ref65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"212","DOI":"10.1037\/a0025823","article-title":"Individual prediction of dyslexia by single versus multiple deficit models","volume":"121","author":"Pennington","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Abnorm. Psychol."},{"key":"ref66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-17279-0","article-title":"High-definition tDCS of the temporo-parietal cortex enhances access to newly learned words","volume":"7","author":"Perceval","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1314","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2012.05.021","article-title":"The importance of timing in segregated theta phase-coupling for cognitive performance","volume":"22","author":"Polan\u00eda","year":"2012","journal-title":"Curr. Biol."},{"key":"ref68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1093\/scan\/nsm006","article-title":"Region of interest analysis for fMRI","volume":"2","author":"Poldrack","year":"2007","journal-title":"Soc. Cogn. Affect. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1002\/1098-2779(2000)6:3<207::AID-MRDD8>3.0.CO;2-P","article-title":"Functional neuroimaging studies of reading and reading disability (developmental dyslexia)","volume":"6","author":"Pugh","year":"2000","journal-title":"Ment. Retard. Dev. Disabil. Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.2307\/747832","article-title":"The nonword reading deficit in developmental dyslexia: a review","volume":"27","author":"Rack","year":"1992","journal-title":"Read. Res. Q."},{"key":"ref71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"109189","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropsychologia.2025.109189","article-title":"Effectiveness of neuromodulation with tDCS on developmental dyslexia: a randomized, double-blind, controlled clinical trial","volume":"216","author":"Rezaei","year":"2025","journal-title":"Neuropsychologia"},{"key":"ref72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3299","DOI":"10.1002\/hbm.20752","article-title":"Functional abnormalities in the dyslexic brain: a quantitative meta-analysis of neuroimaging studies","volume":"30","author":"Richlan","year":"2009","journal-title":"Hum. Brain Mapp."},{"key":"ref73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1735","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2011.02.040","article-title":"Meta-analyzing brain dysfunctions in dyslexic children and adults","volume":"56","author":"Richlan","year":"2011","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"ref74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3055","DOI":"10.1002\/hbm.22127","article-title":"Structural abnormalities in the dyslexic brain: a meta-analysis of voxel-based morphometry studies","volume":"34","author":"Richlan","year":"2013","journal-title":"Hum. Brain Mapp."},{"key":"ref75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2017.11.033","article-title":"Neural entrainment to speech modulates speech intelligibility","volume":"28","author":"Riecke","year":"2018","journal-title":"Curr. Biol."},{"key":"ref76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijsu.2019.10.015","article-title":"The current state of animal models in research: a review","volume":"72","author":"Robinson","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Surg."},{"key":"ref77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.11648\/j.sjedu.20190704.11","article-title":"An overview of dyslexia: definition, characteristics, assessment, identification, and intervention","volume":"7","author":"Roitsch","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. J. Educ."},{"key":"ref78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"930","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brs.2019.02.007","article-title":"Transcranial electrical stimulation improves phoneme processing in developmental dyslexia","volume":"12","author":"Rufener","year":"2019","journal-title":"Brain Stimul."},{"key":"ref79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1016\/bs.pbr.2021.01.016","article-title":"Dysfunctional auditory gamma oscillations in developmental dyslexia: a potential target for a tACS-based intervention","volume":"265","author":"Rufener","year":"2021","journal-title":"Prog. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"Unit9.35","DOI":"10.1002\/0471142301.ns0935s54","article-title":"Overview of animal models of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)","volume":"54","author":"Russell","year":"2011","journal-title":"Curr. Protoc. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref81","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1016\/0163-1047(92)90315-U","article-title":"The spontaneously hypertensive rat (SHR) as an animal model of childhood hyperactivity (ADHD): changed reactivity to reinforcers and to psychomotor stimulants","volume":"58","author":"Sagvolden","year":"1992","journal-title":"Behav. Neural Biol."},{"key":"ref82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1002\/brb3.2724","article-title":"A systematic review of randomized controlled trials on efficacy and safety of transcranial direct current stimulation in major neurodevelopmental disorders: ADHD, autism, and dyslexia","volume":"12","author":"Salehinejad","year":"2022","journal-title":"Brain Behav."},{"key":"ref83","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5778","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-42192-z","article-title":"Gamma tACS over the temporal lobe increases the occurrence of Eureka! Moments","volume":"9","author":"Santarnecchi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref84","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2017.11.039","article-title":"Morphometric similarity networks detect microscale cortical organization and predict inter-individual cognitive variation","volume":"97","author":"Seidlitz","year":"2018","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"ref85","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1301","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2005.01.043","article-title":"Dyslexia (specific reading disability)","volume":"57","author":"Shaywitz","year":"2005","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref86","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2636","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.95.5.2636","article-title":"Functional disruption in the organization of the brain for reading in dyslexia","volume":"95","author":"Shaywitz","year":"1998","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref87","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00309831","article-title":"Phonemic deficits in developmental dyslexia","volume":"43","author":"Snowling","year":"1981","journal-title":"Psychol. Res."},{"key":"ref88","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1017\/S1360641797001366","article-title":"Dyslexia as a phonological deficit: evidence and implications","volume":"3","author":"Snowling","year":"1998","journal-title":"Child Psychol. Psychiatry Rev."},{"key":"ref89","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1007\/s10484-014-9264-7","article-title":"Neuromodulation integrating rTMS and neurofeedback for the treatment of autism Spectrum disorder: an exploratory study","volume":"39","author":"Sokhadze","year":"2014","journal-title":"Appl. Psychophysiol. Biofeedback"},{"key":"ref90","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"036003","DOI":"10.1088\/1741-2552\/abd2c9","article-title":"Multi-channel transcranial temporally interfering stimulation (tTIS): application to living mice brain","volume":"18","author":"Song","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Neural Eng."},{"key":"ref91","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6423","DOI":"10.1155\/2020\/8896423","article-title":"The effects of 1 mA tACS and tRNS on children\/adolescents and adults: investigating age and sensitivity to sham stimulation","volume":"2020","author":"Splittgerber","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neural Plast."},{"key":"ref92","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"869","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2019.00869","article-title":"Cross-validation of functional MRI and paranoid-depressive scale: results from multivariate analysis","volume":"10","author":"Stoyanov","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref93","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"641","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2017.00641","article-title":"Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS): a beginner\u2019s guide for design and implementation","volume":"11","author":"Thair","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref94","author":"Thielscher","year":"2015"},{"key":"ref95","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brs.2011.04.002","article-title":"Left lateralizing transcranial direct current stimulation improves reading efficiency","volume":"5","author":"Turkeltaub","year":"2012","journal-title":"Brain Stimul."},{"key":"ref96","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1157","DOI":"10.1002\/hbm.25700","article-title":"The use of noninvasive brain stimulation techniques to improve reading difficulties in dyslexia: a systematic review","volume":"43","author":"Turker","year":"2022","journal-title":"Hum. Brain Mapp."},{"key":"ref97","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1114","DOI":"10.1038\/s42003-023-05499-2","article-title":"Disrupted network interactions serve as a neural marker of dyslexia","volume":"6","author":"Turker","year":"2023","journal-title":"Commun. Biol."},{"key":"ref98","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.3758\/BF03209419","article-title":"Computational and statistical methods for analyzing event-related potential data","volume":"30","author":"Van Boxtel","year":"1998","journal-title":"Behav. Res. Methods Instrum. Comput."},{"key":"ref99","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2426","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2010.10.002","article-title":"The left occipitotemporal system in reading: disruption of focal fMRI connectivity to left inferior frontal and inferior parietal language areas in children with dyslexia","volume":"54","author":"Van der Mark","year":"2011","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"ref100","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"477","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nicl.2013.03.010","article-title":"Distinct neural signatures of cognitive subtypes of dyslexia with and without phonological deficits","volume":"2","author":"Van Ermingen-Marbach","year":"2013","journal-title":"NeuroImage Clin."},{"key":"ref101","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"537","DOI":"10.1007\/s00401-017-1736-4","article-title":"Autism spectrum disorder: neuropathology and animal models","volume":"134","author":"Varghese","year":"2017","journal-title":"Acta Neuropathol."},{"key":"ref102","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"024001","DOI":"10.1088\/1741-2552\/ad2d32","article-title":"Safety, tolerability and blinding efficiency of non-invasive deep transcranial temporal interference stimulation: first experience from more than 250 sessions","volume":"21","author":"Vassiliadis","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Neural Eng."},{"key":"ref103","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"996","DOI":"10.1037\/xge0000956","article-title":"Prefrontal transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) has a domain-specific impact on bilingual language control","volume":"150","author":"Vaughn","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Exp. Psychol. Gen."},{"key":"ref104","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2005","DOI":"10.1038\/s41593-023-01457-7","article-title":"Noninvasive theta-burst stimulation of the human striatum enhances striatal activity and motor skill learning","volume":"26","author":"Wessel","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref105","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"415","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-0663.91.3.415","article-title":"The double-deficit hypothesis for the developmental dyslexias","volume":"91","author":"Wolf","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Educ. Psychol."},{"key":"ref106","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"711","DOI":"10.1002\/hbm.20540","article-title":"Source-based morphometry: the use of independent component analysis to identify gray matter differences with application to schizophrenia","volume":"30","author":"Xu","year":"2009","journal-title":"Hum. Brain Mapp."},{"key":"ref107","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"804","DOI":"10.1007\/s12519-022-00572-y","article-title":"Prevalence of developmental dyslexia in primary school children: a protocol for systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"18","author":"Yang","year":"2022","journal-title":"World J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref108","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1147","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2018.01147","article-title":"Atypical white matter connectivity in dyslexic readers of a fairly transparent orthography","volume":"9","author":"\u017dari\u0107","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."}],"updated-by":[{"DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2025.1732546","type":"correction","label":"Correction","source":"publisher","updated":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,12]],"date-time":"2025-11-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1762905600000}}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Human Neuroscience"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fnhum.2025.1651332\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,13]],"date-time":"2025-11-13T08:16:23Z","timestamp":1763021783000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fnhum.2025.1651332\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]]},"references-count":108,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fnhum.2025.1651332"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fnhum.2025.1651332","relation":{},"ISSN":["1662-5161"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1662-5161","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]]},"article-number":"1651332"}}