{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,7]],"date-time":"2026-10-07T21:49:12Z","timestamp":1791409752344,"version":"4.3.3"},"reference-count":130,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,11]],"date-time":"2025-11-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1762819200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Hum. Neurosci."],"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Introduction<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>The coordination and expression of cultural specific affective cues during speech production in a second language (L2) reflects pragmatic adaptation, which is a critical step toward learning and achieving broader pragmatic competence. Embodied cognition provides a framework for understanding how cognitive and emotional processes shape L2 expression.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Objective<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>This study examined how immersive language experience influences pragmatic adaptation through the vocal expression of affect and physiological arousal in Chinese ESL learners.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Acoustic analysis and electrodermal activity (EDA) measurements were used to assess affectively valenced word production in speakers with varying levels of immersive English experience.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>High-immersion speakers exhibited greater pitch, intensity, and duration variation, enhancing emotional expressivity. Low-immersion speakers showed constrained vocal patterns and significantly higher physiological arousal, likely due to increased cognitive demands and anxiety.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Discussion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>These findings highlight the impact of L2 proficiency on affective language embodiment and the cognitive challenges faced by L2 learners. This study offers novel insights by considering a pictorial character-based language, broadening our understanding of emotion-language interaction. Findings have implications for second-language education, cross-cultural communication, and bilingual speech therapy.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2025.1653894","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,11]],"date-time":"2025-11-11T06:31:19Z","timestamp":1762842679000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Emotion, proficiency, and arousal: exploring speech and physiological responses in Chinese ESL learners"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"19","author":[{"given":"Mengjiao","family":"Wu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jennifer M.","family":"Roche","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","first-page":"1","article-title":"Attention and awareness: evidence from cognitive and second language acquisition research","volume":"4","author":"Al-Hejin","year":"2004","journal-title":"Stud. Appl. Ling. TESOL"},{"key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pragma.2010.07.010","article-title":"A cross-linguistic study of refusals: an analysis of pragmatic competence development in Iranian EFL learners","volume":"43","author":"Allami","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Pragmat."},{"key":"ref3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"310","DOI":"10.1177\/1367006910379261","article-title":"The representation of emotion vs. emotion-laden words in English and Spanish in the affective Simon task","volume":"15","author":"Altarriba","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Biling."},{"key":"ref4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"503","DOI":"10.1080\/02699939408408956","article-title":"Emotionality in free recall: language specificity in bilingual memory","volume":"8","author":"Anooshian","year":"1994","journal-title":"Cognit. Emot."},{"key":"ref5","first-page":"11","article-title":"Attention to affect in language learning","volume":"22","author":"Arnold","year":"2011","journal-title":"Online Sub."},{"key":"ref6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"599","DOI":"10.1093\/applin\/amq009","article-title":"Extended, embodied cognition and second language acquisition","volume":"31","author":"Atkinson","year":"2010","journal-title":"Appl. Linguis."},{"key":"ref7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1007\/s40593-018-0171-6","article-title":"Adding communicative and affective strategies to an embodied conversational agent to enhance second language learners\u2019 willingness to communicate","volume":"29","author":"Ayedoun","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Artif. Intell. Educ."},{"key":"ref8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"390","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jml.2007.12.005","article-title":"Mixed-effects modeling with crossed random effects for subjects and items","volume":"59","author":"Baayen","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Mem. Lang."},{"key":"ref9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-9922.2012.00738.x","article-title":"Developing L2 pragmatics","volume":"63","author":"Bardovi-Harlig","year":"2013","journal-title":"Lang. Learn."},{"key":"ref10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.2307\/3587583","article-title":"Do language learners recognize pragmatic violations? Pragmatic versus grammatical awareness in instructed L2 learning","volume":"32","author":"Bardovi-Harlig","year":"1998","journal-title":"TESOL Q."},{"key":"ref9004","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.1017\/S0272263100012122","article-title":"Learning the rules of academic talk: A longitudinal study of pragmatic development","volume":"15","author":"Bardovi-Harlig","year":"1993","journal-title":"Studies in Second Language Acquisition."},{"key":"ref11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jml.2012.11.001","article-title":"Random effects structure for confirmatory hypothesis testing: keep it maximal","volume":"68","author":"Barr","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Mem. Lang."},{"key":"ref12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511805837.011","article-title":"The embodiment of emotion","volume-title":"Embodied grounding: Social, cognitive, affective, and neuroscientific approaches","author":"Barrett","year":"2008"},{"key":"ref13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"617","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.psych.59.103006.093639","article-title":"Grounded cognition","volume":"59","author":"Barsalou","year":"2008","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Psychol"},{"key":"ref14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1016\/S0079-7421(03)01011-9","article-title":"Social embodiment. In D. L. Medin (Ed.)","volume":"43","author":"Barsalou","year":"2003","journal-title":"Psychology of learning and motivation: Advances in research and theory"},{"key":"ref15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"394","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2017.00394","article-title":"Embodiment and emotional memory in first vs. second language","volume":"8","author":"Baumeister","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e12398","DOI":"10.1111\/lnc3.12398","article-title":"Social meaning in semantics and pragmatics","volume":"14","author":"Beltrama","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lang Ling Compass"},{"key":"ref17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1093\/oso\/9780195066029.003.0003","article-title":"Symbolic representation and attentional control in pragmatic competence","volume-title":"Interlanguage pragmatics","author":"Bialystok","year":"1993"},{"key":"ref18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1272","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.102.SE1.1272","article-title":"Language development and emotional expression","volume":"102","author":"Bloom","year":"1998","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref19","author":"Boersma","year":"2005"},{"key":"ref20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4614-1126-0","volume-title":"Electrodermal activity","author":"Boucsein","year":"2012"},{"key":"ref21","author":"Bradley","year":"1999"},{"key":"ref22","first-page":"1017","article-title":"A guide for analysing electrodermal activity (EDA) & skin conductance responses (SCRs) for psychological experiments","volume":"49","author":"Braithwaite","year":"2013","journal-title":"Psychophysiology"},{"key":"ref23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1037\/1528-3542.7.1.30","article-title":"Emotion regulation and culture: are the social consequences of emotion suppression culture-specific?","volume":"7","author":"Butler","year":"2007","journal-title":"Emotion"},{"key":"ref24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1080\/09571739785200291","article-title":"\u2018Cultural awareness\u2019 as vocabulary learning","volume":"16","author":"Byram","year":"1997","journal-title":"Lang. Learn."},{"key":"ref25","volume-title":"Handbook of psychophysiology","author":"Cacioppo","year":"2007"},{"key":"ref26","volume-title":"Teaching pronunciation: A course book and reference guide","author":"Celce-Murcia","year":"2010"},{"key":"ref27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1944-9720.2004.tb02200.x","article-title":"The relationship between foreign language anxiety and learning difficulties","volume":"37","author":"Chen","year":"2004","journal-title":"Foreign Lang. Ann."},{"key":"ref28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cortex.2015.06.002","article-title":"Processing emotional words in two languages with one brain: ERP and fMRI evidence from Chinese\u2013English bilinguals","volume":"71","author":"Chen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cortex"},{"key":"ref29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2011.00351","article-title":"The time course of emotion effects in first and second language processing: a cross cultural ERP study with German\u2013Spanish bilinguals","volume":"2","author":"Conrad","year":"2011","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1075\/aral.25.1.02coo","article-title":"The development of comprehension in interlanguage pragmatics: the case of request strategies in English","volume":"25","author":"Cook","year":"2002","journal-title":"Aust. Rev. Appl. Linguist."},{"key":"ref31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"528","DOI":"10.1080\/01690960801920545","article-title":"Alignment in second language dialogue","volume":"23","author":"Costa","year":"2008","journal-title":"Lang. Cogn. Process."},{"key":"ref32","volume-title":"Symbols and embodiment: Debates on meaning and cognition","author":"De Vega","year":"2012"},{"key":"ref33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"204","DOI":"10.1080\/01434630408666529","article-title":"The emotional force of swearwords and taboo words in the speech of multilinguals","volume":"25","author":"Dewaele","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Multiling. Multicult. Dev."},{"key":"ref34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1111\/1467-9280.00221","article-title":"Unconscious facial reactions to emotional facial expressions","volume":"11","author":"Dimberg","year":"2000","journal-title":"Psychol. Sci."},{"key":"ref35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"371","DOI":"10.1111\/tops.12102","article-title":"Thinking in words: language as an embodied medium of thought","volume":"6","author":"Dove","year":"2014","journal-title":"Top. Cogn. Sci."},{"key":"ref9005","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"353","DOI":"10.1177\/1367006910379263","article-title":"Behavioural and physiological responses to the emotional and taboo Stroop tasks in native and non-native speakers of English","volume":"15","author":"Eilola","year":"2011","journal-title":"International Journal of Bilingualism"},{"key":"ref36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"550","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-295X.99.3.550","article-title":"Are there basic emotions?","volume":"99","author":"Ekman","year":"1992","journal-title":"Psychol. Rev."},{"key":"ref9003","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1093\/applin\/ami038","article-title":"Language acquisition as rational contingency learning","volume":"27","author":"Ellis","year":"2006","journal-title":"Applied linguistics"},{"key":"ref37","first-page":"143","article-title":"Some implications of cognitive appraisal theories of emotion","volume-title":"International review of studies on emotion","author":"Ellsworth","year":"1991"},{"key":"ref38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1177\/1754073912463617","article-title":"Appraisal theory: old and new questions","volume":"5","author":"Ellsworth","year":"2013","journal-title":"Emot. Rev."},{"key":"ref39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1241","DOI":"10.1044\/1092-4388(2007\/087)","article-title":"Talker differences in clear and conversational speech: acoustic characteristics of vowels","volume":"50","author":"Ferguson","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Speech Lang. Hear. Res."},{"key":"ref40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bandc.2015.06.006","article-title":"Do we embody a second language? Evidence for \u2018partial\u2019 simulation during processing of a second language","volume":"99","author":"Foroni","year":"2015","journal-title":"Brain Cogn."},{"key":"ref41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"974","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-9280.2009.02400.x","article-title":"Language that puts you in touch with your bodily feelings: the multimodal responsiveness of affective expressions","volume":"20","author":"Foroni","year":"2009","journal-title":"Psychol. Sci."},{"key":"ref42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1017\/S0272263104262064","article-title":"Context of learning and second language fluency in French: comparing regular classroom, study abroad, and intensive domestic immersion programs","volume":"26","author":"Freed","year":"2004","journal-title":"Stud. Second. Lang. Acquis."},{"key":"ref43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126","DOI":"10.4135\/9781446289068.n7","article-title":"Discourse and cognition","volume-title":"Discourse Studies: A Multidisciplinary Introduction","author":"Graesser","year":"2011"},{"key":"ref44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"970","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.64.6.970","article-title":"Emotional suppression: physiology, self-report, and expressive behavior","volume":"64","author":"Gross","year":"1993","journal-title":"J. Pers. Soc. Psychol."},{"key":"ref45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1080\/01434630408666530","article-title":"Bilingual speakers in the lab: psychophysiological measures of emotional reactivity","volume":"25","author":"Harris","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Multiling. Multicult. Dev."},{"key":"ref46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"561","DOI":"10.1017\/S0142716403000286","article-title":"Taboo words and reprimands elicit greater autonomic reactivity in a first language than in a second language","volume":"24","author":"Harris","year":"2003","journal-title":"Appl. Psycholinguist."},{"key":"ref47","first-page":"257","article-title":"When is a first language more emotional? Psychophysiological evidence from bilingual speakers","volume-title":"Bilingual minds","author":"Harris","year":"2006"},{"key":"ref48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1558\/lhs.v5i3.251","article-title":"A view of pragmatics in a social semiotic perspective","volume":"5","author":"Hasan","year":"2012","journal-title":"Linguist. Hum. Sci."},{"key":"ref49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1080\/13670050.2011.652591","article-title":"Linguistic and metalinguistic outcomes of intense immersion education: how bilingual?","volume":"15","author":"Hermanto","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Biling. Educ. Biling."},{"key":"ref50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0132294","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0132294","article-title":"Emotional valence, arousal, and threat ratings of 160 Chinese words among adolescents","volume":"10","author":"Ho","year":"2015","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"ref51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.1177\/1754073919897296","article-title":"Emotions are abstract, conceptual categories that are learned by a predicting brain","volume":"12","author":"Hoemann","year":"2020","journal-title":"Emot. Rev."},{"key":"ref52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1075\/pbns.294.02hol","article-title":"Sociolinguistics vs pragmatics: where does the boundary lie?","volume-title":"Pragmatics and its interfaces","author":"Holmes","year":"2018"},{"key":"ref53","volume-title":"Psychophysiology: The mind\u2013body perspective","author":"Hugdahl","year":"1995"},{"key":"ref54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"176","DOI":"10.1002\/ijop.12283","article-title":"Cross-cultural differences in emotion suppression in everyday interactions","volume":"53","author":"Huwa\u00eb","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Psychol."},{"key":"ref55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"104972","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jecp.2020.104972","article-title":"Emotion expression and regulation in three cultures: Chinese, Japanese, and American preschoolers\u2019 reactions to disappointment","volume":"201","author":"Ip","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Exp. Child Psychol."},{"key":"ref56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101203","DOI":"10.1016\/j.learninstruc.2019.04.004","article-title":"What multimodal data can tell us about the students\u2019 regulation of their learning process?","volume":"72","author":"J\u00e4rvel\u00e4","year":"2021","journal-title":"Learn. Instr."},{"key":"ref57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1980","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2020.01980","article-title":"Respiratory rhythm, autonomic modulation, and the spectrum of emotions: the future of emotion recognition and modulation","volume":"11","author":"Jerath","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-47635-3_7","article-title":"Affective (Dis)Embodiment in Nonnative Language","volume-title":"Affect-language interactions in native and non-native English speakers: A neuropragmatic perspective","author":"Jo\u0144czyk","year":"2016"},{"key":"ref59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"770","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.129.5.770","article-title":"Communication of emotions in vocal expression and music performance: different channels, same code?","volume":"129","author":"Juslin","year":"2003","journal-title":"Psychol. Bull."},{"key":"ref60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"502","DOI":"10.1093\/applin\/22.4.502","article-title":"Four perspectives on L2 pragmatic development","volume":"22","author":"Kasper","year":"2001","journal-title":"Appl. Linguis."},{"key":"ref61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"395","DOI":"10.1007\/s10936-015-9357-3","article-title":"Emotion word processing: effects of word type and valence in Spanish\u2013English bilinguals","volume":"45","author":"Kazanas","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Psycholinguist. Res."},{"key":"ref62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1037\/1089-2680.5.3.187","article-title":"How and when does emotional expression help?","volume":"5","author":"Kennedy-Moore","year":"2001","journal-title":"Rev. Gen. Psychol."},{"key":"ref9002","first-page":"n1","article-title":"\u201cFrom the Sound, It Look Like He Said It from the Deep in His Heart\u201d: How Do English Learners Make Judgments of Pragma-Prosodic Meaning?","volume":"25","author":"Kermad","year":"2021","journal-title":"TESL-EJ"},{"key":"ref63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1093\/acrefore\/9780190228613.013.21","article-title":"Cross-cultural adaptation","volume-title":"Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Communication","author":"Kim","year":"2017"},{"key":"ref64","first-page":"369","article-title":"Socio-cultural perspectives on pragmatic development in foreign language learning: Microgenetic case studies from telecollaboration and residence abroad","volume-title":"Intercul Pragma","author":"Kinginger","year":"2005"},{"key":"ref65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"464","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsycho.2012.09.004","article-title":"Emotion, etmnooi, or emitoon?\u2013faster lexical access to emotional than to neutral words during reading","volume":"92","author":"Kissler","year":"2013","journal-title":"Biol. Psychol."},{"key":"ref66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1080\/17501229.2019.1607355","article-title":"Words in action: investigating students\u2019 language acquisition and emotional performance through embodied learning","volume":"14","author":"Kosmas","year":"2020","journal-title":"Innov. Lang. Learn. Teach."},{"key":"ref67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1037\/a0021446","article-title":"The representation of abstract words: why emotion matters","volume":"140","author":"Kousta","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Exp. Psychol. Gen."},{"key":"ref68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"473","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cognition.2009.06.007","article-title":"Emotion words, regardless of polarity, have a processing advantage over neutral words","volume":"112","author":"Kousta","year":"2009","journal-title":"Cognition"},{"key":"ref69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"639","DOI":"10.1007\/s11423-015-9401-x","article-title":"Embodied cognition and language learning in virtual environments","volume":"63","author":"Lan","year":"2015","journal-title":"Educ. Technol. Res. Dev."},{"key":"ref70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"776","DOI":"10.1111\/1469-8986.00078","article-title":"Effects of positive and negative affect on electromyographic activity over zygomaticus major and corrugator supercilii","volume":"40","author":"Larsen","year":"2003","journal-title":"Psychophysiology"},{"key":"ref71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.2307\/3588190","article-title":"Intonation in theory and practice, revisited","volume":"33","author":"Levis","year":"1999","journal-title":"TESOL Q."},{"key":"ref72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"999","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2019.00999","article-title":"Cultural differences in interpersonal emotion regulation","volume":"10","author":"Liddell","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.1016\/j.system.2006.04.004","article-title":"Anxiety in Chinese EFL students at different proficiency levels","volume":"34","author":"Liu","year":"2006","journal-title":"System"},{"key":"ref74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"96","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cognition.2009.09.002","article-title":"The linguistic and embodied nature of conceptual processing","volume":"114","author":"Louwerse","year":"2010","journal-title":"Cognition"},{"key":"ref75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.14746\/ssllt.2017.7.1.4","article-title":"Positive and negative emotions underlie motivation for L2 learning","volume":"7","author":"MacIntyre","year":"2017","journal-title":"Stud. Second Lang. Learn. Teach."},{"key":"ref76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02979253","article-title":"Arousal, cognition and emotion: an appraisal of two-factor theory","volume":"1","author":"Manstead","year":"1981","journal-title":"Curr. Psychol. Rev."},{"key":"ref77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-1770.1983.tb00532.x","article-title":"Second language learning: an information-processing perspective 1","volume":"33","author":"McLaughlin","year":"1983","journal-title":"Lang. Learn."},{"key":"ref78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.47941\/ejl.2044","article-title":"Pragmatic competence in second language learners","volume":"3","author":"Mokoro","year":"2024","journal-title":"Eur. J. Linguist."},{"key":"ref79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2019.00110","article-title":"Embodied semantics in a second language: critical review and clinical implications","volume":"13","author":"Monaco","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Hum. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1177\/1754073912468165","article-title":"Appraisal theories of emotion: state of the art and future development","volume":"5","author":"Moors","year":"2013","journal-title":"Emot. Rev."},{"key":"ref81","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"595","DOI":"10.1093\/scan\/nss036","article-title":"Culture shapes electrocortical responses during emotion suppression","volume":"8","author":"Murata","year":"2013","journal-title":"Soc. Cogn. Affect. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"22361","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-27064-3","article-title":"Native and non-native language contexts differently modulate mood-driven electrodermal activity","volume":"12","author":"Naranowicz","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref83","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"597","DOI":"10.1017\/S1366728912000375","article-title":"Cognitive advantage in children enrolled in a second-language immersion elementary school program for three years","volume":"16","author":"Nicolay","year":"2013","journal-title":"Bilingualism Lang. Cogn."},{"key":"ref84","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"9599","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1206095109","article-title":"Emotions promote social interaction by synchronizing brain activity across individuals","volume":"109","author":"Nummenmaa","year":"2012","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref85","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.1159\/000511628","article-title":"Factors facilitating early emotion understanding development: contributions to individual differences","volume":"64","author":"Ogren","year":"2021","journal-title":"Hum. Dev."},{"key":"ref86","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1961","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropsychologia.2012.04.021","article-title":"Emotionality in a second language: it's a matter of time","volume":"50","author":"Opitz","year":"2012","journal-title":"Neuropsychologia"},{"key":"ref87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1093\/acprof:oso\/9780195066661.001.0001","volume-title":"Mental representations: A dual coding approach","author":"Paivio","year":"1990"},{"key":"ref88","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1017\/S0267190523000028","article-title":"Second language anxiety: construct, effects, and sources","volume":"43","author":"Papi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Appl. Linguist."},{"key":"ref89","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"405","DOI":"10.1080\/00207594.2012.743665","article-title":"Affective processing in bilingual speakers: disembodied cognition?","volume":"47","author":"Pavlenko","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Psychol."},{"key":"ref90","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"417","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wocn.2009.07.005","article-title":"Factors in the recognition of vocally expressed emotions: a comparison of four languages","volume":"37","author":"Pell","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Phon."},{"key":"ref91","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpsycho.2014.07.015","article-title":"Physiological and cognitive consequences of suppressing and expressing emotion in dyadic interactions","volume":"94","author":"Peters","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Psychophysiol."},{"key":"ref92","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.62583\/rseltl.v1i3.17","article-title":"The effectiveness of immersive language learning: an investigation into English language acquisition in immersion environments versus traditional classroom settings","volume":"1","author":"Porter","year":"2023","journal-title":"Res. Stud. English Lang. Teach. Learn."},{"key":"ref93","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"793","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1460-9568.2005.03900.x","article-title":"Functional links between motor and language systems","volume":"21","author":"Pulverm\u00fcller","year":"2005","journal-title":"Eur. J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref94","first-page":"10","article-title":"Development of language proficiency and pragmatic competence in an immersive language program","volume":"9","author":"Rafieyan","year":"2019","journal-title":"World"},{"key":"ref95","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1044\/0161-1461(2005\/005)","article-title":"Serving English language learners in public school settings","volume":"36","author":"Roseberry-McKibbin","year":"2005","journal-title":"Lang. Speech Hear. Serv. Sch."},{"key":"ref96","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-295X.110.1.145","article-title":"Core affect and the psychological construction of emotion","volume":"110","author":"Russell","year":"2003","journal-title":"Psychol. Rev."},{"key":"ref97","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2408","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0908239106","article-title":"Cross-cultural recognition of basic emotions through nonverbal emotional vocalizations","volume":"107","author":"Sauter","year":"2010","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref98","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"379","DOI":"10.1037\/h0046234","article-title":"Cognitive, social, and physiological determinants of emotional state","volume":"69","author":"Schachter","year":"1962","journal-title":"Psychol. Rev."},{"key":"ref99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"637","DOI":"10.1002\/0470013494.ch30","article-title":"Appraisal theory","volume-title":"Handbook of cognition and emotion","author":"Scherer","year":"1999"},{"key":"ref100","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1016\/S0167-6393(02)00084-5","article-title":"Vocal communication of emotion: a review of research paradigms","volume":"40","author":"Scherer","year":"2003","journal-title":"Speech Comm."},{"key":"ref101","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.1177\/0022022101032001009","article-title":"Emotion inferences from vocal expression correlate across languages and cultures","volume":"32","author":"Scherer","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Cross-Cult. Psychol."},{"key":"ref102","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"783","DOI":"10.1037\/a0027209","article-title":"Emotion words affect eye fixations during reading","volume":"38","author":"Scott","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Exp. Psychol. Learn. Mem. Cogn."},{"key":"ref103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1017\/S0272263104262027","article-title":"Context, contact, and cognition in oral fluency acquisition: learning Spanish in at home and study abroad contexts","volume":"26","author":"Segalowitz","year":"2004","journal-title":"Stud. Second. Lang. Acquis."},{"key":"ref104","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpsycho.2008.07.009","article-title":"Electrical autonomic correlates of emotion","volume":"71","author":"Sequeira","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. J. Psychophysiol."},{"key":"ref105","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"488","DOI":"10.1080\/02699931.2015.1018144","article-title":"The embodiment of emotional words in a second language: an eye-movement study","volume":"30","author":"Sheikh","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cognit. Emot."},{"key":"ref106","author":"Shi","year":"2007"},{"key":"ref107","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"367","DOI":"10.1016\/S0095-4470(19)30328-6","article-title":"A dynamic programming algorithm for time-aligning and averaging physiological signals related to speech","volume":"19","author":"Strik","year":"1991","journal-title":"J. Phon."},{"key":"ref108","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1077","DOI":"10.1080\/02699930601054133","article-title":"The automatic access of emotion: emotional Stroop effects in Spanish\u2013English bilingual speakers","volume":"21","author":"Sutton","year":"2007","journal-title":"Cognit. Emot."},{"key":"ref109","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1143064","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2023.1143064","article-title":"The embodiment of emotion-label words and emotion-laden words: evidence from late Chinese\u2013English bilinguals","volume":"14","author":"Tang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref110","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e13143","DOI":"10.1111\/nmo.13143","article-title":"Emotional awareness and expression training improves irritable bowel syndrome: a randomized controlled trial","volume":"29","author":"Thakur","year":"2017","journal-title":"Neurogastroenterol. Motil."},{"key":"ref111","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1023","DOI":"10.1037\/emo0000502","article-title":"Reduced language processing automaticity induces weaker emotions in bilinguals regardless of learning context","volume":"19","author":"Thoma","year":"2019","journal-title":"Emotion"},{"key":"ref112","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1007\/s10936-017-9522-y","article-title":"Estimating emotions through language statistics and embodied cognition","volume":"47","author":"Tillman","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Psycholinguist. Res."},{"key":"ref113","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"427","DOI":"10.2307\/1412861","article-title":"An historical note on the James-Lange theory of emotion","volume":"25","author":"Titchener","year":"1914","journal-title":"Am. J. Psychol."},{"key":"ref114","first-page":"259","article-title":"Second language pronunciation assessment: A look at the present and the future","volume-title":"Second language pronunciation assessment: Interdisciplinary perspectives","author":"Trofimovich","year":"2016"},{"key":"ref115","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"288","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.90.2.288","article-title":"Cultural variation in affect valuation","volume":"90","author":"Tsai","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Pers. Soc. Psychol."},{"key":"ref116","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"396","DOI":"10.1080\/17437199.2023.2251559","article-title":"Emotion suppression and acute physiological responses to stress in healthy populations: a quantitative review of experimental and correlational investigations","volume":"18","author":"Tyra","year":"2024","journal-title":"Health Psychol. Rev."},{"key":"ref117","article-title":"Same anxiety, different faces: shared mechanisms with distinct manifestations in native and non-native speech","author":"Wang","year":"","journal-title":"PsyArXiv"},{"key":"ref118","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e20240095","DOI":"10.1002\/INMD.20240095","article-title":"Integrating emotion dynamics in mental health: a trimodal framework combining ecological momentary assessment, physiological measurements, and speech emotion recognition","volume":"3","author":"Wang","year":"","journal-title":"Interdiscip. Med."},{"key":"ref119","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2013.00058","article-title":"Embodied cognition is not what you think it is","volume":"4","author":"Wilson","year":"2013","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref120","first-page":"151","article-title":"Embodiment of cognition and emotion","volume-title":"APA handbook of personality and social psychology, Volume 1: Attitudes and social cognition","author":"Winkielman","year":"2015"},{"key":"ref9001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4899-0900-8_14","article-title":"The Social Dynamics of Native and Nonnative Variation in Complimenting Behavior","volume-title":"The Dynamic Interlanguage. Topics in Language and Linguistics","author":"Wolfson","year":"1989"},{"key":"ref121","first-page":"84","article-title":"Second language pragmatic competence: individual differences in ESL and EFL environments","volume":"14","author":"Wyner","year":"2014","journal-title":"Work. Pap. TESOL Appl. Linguist."},{"key":"ref122","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"349","DOI":"10.36366\/frontiers.v25i1.349","article-title":"Adult second language learners' pragmatic development in the study-abroad context: a review","volume":"25","author":"Xiao","year":"2015","journal-title":"Front. Interdis. J. Study Abroad"},{"key":"ref123","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1173","DOI":"10.1037\/xlm0001017","article-title":"The gleam-glum effect:\/in\/versus\/\u03bb\/phonemes generically carry emotional valence","volume":"47","author":"Yu","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Exp. Psychol. Learn. Mem. Cogn."},{"key":"ref124","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"105043","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bandl.2021.105043","article-title":"Language immersion and language training: two paths to enhanced language regulation and cognitive control","volume":"223","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Brain Lang."},{"key":"ref125","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"911","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci12070911","article-title":"Divergent conceptualization of embodied emotions in the English and Chinese languages","volume":"12","author":"Zhou","year":"2022","journal-title":"Brain Sci."}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Human Neuroscience"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fnhum.2025.1653894\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,11]],"date-time":"2025-11-11T06:31:25Z","timestamp":1762842685000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fnhum.2025.1653894\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,11]]},"references-count":130,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fnhum.2025.1653894"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fnhum.2025.1653894","relation":{},"ISSN":["1662-5161"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1662-5161","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,11]]},"article-number":"1653894"}}