{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,16]],"date-time":"2025-10-16T00:20:22Z","timestamp":1760574022960,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":77,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,15]],"date-time":"2025-10-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1760486400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000002","name":"National Institutes of Health","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000002","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100007925","name":"Waisman Center","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100007925","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100007015","name":"University of Wisconsin-Madison","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100007015","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Hum. Neurosci."],"abstract":"<jats:sec><jats:title>Introduction<\/jats:title><jats:p>Perinatal brain injury is a leading cause of cerebral palsy. Single-pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation (spTMS) provides a non-invasive method for investigating motor pathway development; however, data on the safety and feasibility of its repeated use in infants are limited. This study provides the first longitudinal evaluation of the safety, tolerability, and feasibility of spTMS in infants with perinatal brain injury.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title><jats:p>Twenty infants with perinatal brain injury (corrected age 3\u201325 months) participated in 46 spTMS sessions while awake. Safety and tolerability were systematically assessed using heart rate, respiratory rate, and the Modified Behavioral Pain Scale (MBPS). Feasibility was quantified by session completion, participant retention, and acquisition of motor-evoked potentials (MEPs) from bilateral wrist flexors.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Results<\/jats:title><jats:p>Across 2,527 pulses, no adverse events occurred. Physiological measures and MBPS scores remained stable from pre- to post-stimulation. Analyzable electromyography (EMG) was obtained in 100% of sessions, with MEPs successfully elicited in 44\/46 sessions (95.7%) across 19\/20 infants (95%). A high longitudinal retention rate (85%) further demonstrated excellent protocol acceptability.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Discussion<\/jats:title><jats:p>These findings establish a safe, reproducible framework for longitudinal spTMS in a vulnerable infant population. This methodological advance enables future investigations into neuroplasticity and corticospinal tract development after early brain injury, with the potential to yield biomarkers that guide the timing and targets of early interventions.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2025.1686054","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,15]],"date-time":"2025-10-15T05:42:29Z","timestamp":1760506949000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Longitudinal study of single-pulse TMS in infants with perinatal brain injury: safety and feasibility"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"19","author":[{"given":"Kellie M.","family":"Collins","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Cameron P.","family":"Casey","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ellen N.","family":"Sutter","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Paige","family":"DeGrave","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Danielle","family":"Gauthier","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Arun Karumattu","family":"Manattu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Hung-Shao","family":"Cheng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ryan M.","family":"McAdams","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Raghavendra","family":"Rao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Michael K.","family":"Georgieff","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Bernadette T.","family":"Gillick","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"026016","DOI":"10.1088\/1741-2552\/ac9a76","article-title":"Modelling the differential effects of age on transcranial magnetic stimulation induced electric fields","volume":"20","author":"Alawi","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Neural Eng."},{"key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pediatrneurol.2016.12.009","article-title":"Safety of transcranial magnetic stimulation in children: a systematic review of the literature","volume":"68","author":"Allen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Pediatr. Neurol."},{"key":"ref3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.5114\/ppn.2021.110796","article-title":"Transcranial magnetic stimulation as a diagnostic and therapeutic tool in cerebral palsy","volume":"30","author":"Antczak","year":"2021","journal-title":"Postepy Psychiatr. Neurol."},{"key":"ref4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1588","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brs.2023.10.008","article-title":"TMS of parietal and occipital cortex locked to spontaneous transient large-scale brain states enhances natural oscillations in EEG","volume":"16","author":"Bai","year":"2023","journal-title":"Brain Stimul."},{"key":"ref5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.18637\/jss.v067.i01","article-title":"Fitting linear mixed-effects models using lme4","volume":"67","author":"Bates","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Stat. Softw."},{"key":"ref6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1177\/107155760200900601","article-title":"Perinatal brain damage: underlying mechanisms and neuroprotective strategies","volume":"9","author":"Berger","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Soc. Gynecol. Investig."},{"key":"ref7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1016\/0168-5597(92)90095-S","article-title":"Topographic mapping of the human motor cortex with magnetic stimulation: factors affecting accuracy and reproducibility","volume":"85","author":"Brasil-Neto","year":"1992","journal-title":"Electroencephalogr. Clin. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"522","DOI":"10.1111\/dmcn.12355","article-title":"Etiology of impaired selective motor control: emerging evidence and its implications for research and treatment in cerebral palsy","volume":"56","author":"Cahill-Rowley","year":"2014","journal-title":"Dev. Med. Child Neurol."},{"key":"ref9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2019.00185","article-title":"Age, height, and sex on motor evoked potentials: translational data from a large Italian cohort in a clinical environment","volume":"13","author":"Cantone","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Hum. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.transm.2025.100194","article-title":"Reliability of motor evoked potential identification in pediatric populations","volume":"5","author":"Casey","year":"2025","journal-title":"Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation"},{"key":"ref11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"154","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ridd.2015.09.010","article-title":"Ipsilesional motor-evoked potential absence in pediatric hemiparesis impacts tracking accuracy of the less affected hand","volume":"47","author":"Cassidy","year":"2015","journal-title":"Res. Dev. Disabil."},{"key":"ref12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1097\/pep.0000000000000365","article-title":"Understanding brain reorganization in infants with perinatal stroke through neuroexcitability and neuroimaging","volume":"29","author":"Chen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Pediatr. Phys. Ther."},{"key":"ref13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci6040049","article-title":"Corticospinal excitability in children with congenital hemiparesis","volume":"6","author":"Chen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Brain Sci."},{"key":"ref14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1186\/s12868-024-00885-w","article-title":"The reliability and validity of rapid transcranial magnetic stimulation mapping for muscles under active contraction","volume":"25","author":"Chowdhury","year":"2024","journal-title":"BMC Neurosci."},{"key":"ref15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2251","DOI":"10.1007\/s00221-021-06144-2","article-title":"Motor evoked potential latency and duration from tibialis anterior in individuals with chronic stroke","volume":"239","author":"Cleland","year":"2021","journal-title":"Exp. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"660","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpain.2018.01.012","article-title":"The psychometric properties of the MBPS scale used to assess procedural pain","volume":"19","author":"Crellin","year":"","journal-title":"J. Pain"},{"key":"ref17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pedn.2018.02.005","article-title":"A systematic review of the psychometric properties of the modified behavioral pain scale (MBPS)","volume":"40","author":"Crellin","year":"","journal-title":"J. Pediatr. Nurs."},{"key":"ref18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1007\/s00221-008-1552-0","article-title":"The influence of coil-skull distance on transcranial magnetic stimulation motor-evoked responses","volume":"192","author":"Cukic","year":"2009","journal-title":"Exp. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"376","DOI":"10.1007\/s00221-006-0468-9","article-title":"Variability of motor potentials evoked by transcranial magnetic stimulation depends on muscle activation","volume":"174","author":"Darling","year":"2006","journal-title":"Exp. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.00663.2018","article-title":"Infraslow activity as a potential modulator of corticomotor excitability","volume":"122","author":"De Goede","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.1968.31.1.14","article-title":"Relation of pyramidal tract activity to force exerted during voluntary movement","volume":"31","author":"Evarts","year":"1968","journal-title":"J. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"493","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.21108","article-title":"Is hemiplegic cerebral palsy equivalent to amblyopia of the corticospinal system?","volume":"62","author":"Eyre","year":"2007","journal-title":"Ann. Neurol."},{"key":"ref23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1543","DOI":"10.1212\/wnl.57.9.1543","article-title":"Evidence of activity-dependent withdrawal of corticospinal projections during human development","volume":"57","author":"Eyre","year":"2001","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"S102","DOI":"10.1016\/S1053-8119(09)70884-5","article-title":"Unbiased nonlinear average age-appropriate brain templates from birth to adulthood","volume":"47","author":"Fonov","year":"2009","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"ref25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2021.660780","article-title":"Improvements in upper extremity function following intensive training are independent of corticospinal tract Organization in Children with Unilateral Spastic Cerebral Palsy: a clinical randomized trial","volume":"12","author":"Friel","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Neurol."},{"key":"ref26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2014.00229","article-title":"Activity-based therapies for repair of the corticospinal system injured during development","volume":"5","author":"Friel","year":"2014","journal-title":"Front. Neurol."},{"key":"ref27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1177\/0883073807307972","article-title":"Transcranial magnetic stimulation in child neurology: current and future directions","volume":"23","author":"Frye","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Child Neurol."},{"key":"ref28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"357","DOI":"10.1177\/08830738231187010","article-title":"Corticomuscular coherence in children with unilateral cerebral palsy: a feasibility and preliminary protocol study","volume":"38","author":"Gangwani","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Child Neurol."},{"key":"ref29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pediatrneurol.2005.06.016","article-title":"Responses to lumbar magnetic stimulation in newborns with Spina bifida","volume":"34","author":"Geerdink","year":"2006","journal-title":"Pediatr. Neurol."},{"key":"ref30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fped.2018.00056","article-title":"Non-invasive brain stimulation in children with unilateral cerebral palsy: a protocol and risk mitigation guide","volume":"6","author":"Gillick","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"S104","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apmr.2014.09.012","article-title":"Safety of primed repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation and modified constraint-induced movement therapy in a randomized controlled trial in pediatric hemiparesis","volume":"96","author":"Gillick","year":"2015","journal-title":"Arch. Phys. Med. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1111\/dmcn.12243","article-title":"Primed low-frequency repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation and constraint-induced movement therapy in pediatric hemiparesis: a randomized controlled trial","volume":"56","author":"Gillick","year":"2014","journal-title":"Dev. Med. Child Neurol."},{"key":"ref33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1111\/dmcn.12304","article-title":"Pathophysiology of impaired hand function in children with unilateral cerebral palsy","volume":"55","author":"Gordon","year":"2013","journal-title":"Dev. Med. Child Neurol."},{"key":"ref34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1102","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci13071102","article-title":"Neural correlates of impaired grasp function in children with unilateral spastic cerebral palsy","volume":"13","author":"Gutterman","year":"2023","journal-title":"Brain Sci."},{"key":"ref35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2007.06.026","article-title":"Transcranial magnetic stimulation: a primer","volume":"55","author":"Hallett","year":"2007","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"ref36","author":"Hartig","year":"2024"},{"key":"ref37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"352","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-8749.2009.03364.x","article-title":"Longitudinal development of hand function in children with unilateral cerebral palsy","volume":"52","author":"Holmefur","year":"2010","journal-title":"Dev. Med. Child Neurol."},{"key":"ref38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-8749.2009.03496.x","article-title":"Hand function in relation to brain lesions and corticomotor-projection pattern in children with unilateral cerebral palsy","volume":"52","author":"Holmstr\u00f6m","year":"2010","journal-title":"Dev. Med. Child Neurol."},{"key":"ref39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"513","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.00387.2013","article-title":"Cortical brain states and corticospinal synchronization influence TMS-evoked motor potentials","volume":"111","author":"Keil","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"371","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brs.2018.11.010","article-title":"Stability of the cardiovascular response during single-pulse TMS in perinatal stroke","volume":"12","author":"Keller-Ross","year":"2019","journal-title":"Brain Stimul."},{"key":"ref41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"415","DOI":"10.1016\/0168-5597(93)90115-6","article-title":"Variability of motor potentials evoked by transcranial magnetic stimulation","volume":"89","author":"Kiers","year":"1993","journal-title":"Electroencephalogr. Clin. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1347","DOI":"10.1136\/adc.63.11.1347","article-title":"Maturation of corticospinal tracts assessed by electromagnetic stimulation of the motor cortex","volume":"63","author":"Koh","year":"1988","journal-title":"Arch. Dis. Child."},{"key":"ref43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"140","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eplepsyres.2010.04.004","article-title":"Lateralization of motor innervation in children with intractable focal epilepsy--a TMS and fMRI study","volume":"90","author":"Koudijs","year":"2010","journal-title":"Epilepsy Res."},{"key":"ref44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"861","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brs.2020.03.007","article-title":"Safety of single-pulse TMS in two infants with implanted patent ductus arteriosus closure devices","volume":"13","author":"Kowalski","year":"2020","journal-title":"Brain Stimul."},{"key":"ref45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1208","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm8081208","article-title":"Motor evoked potentials as potential biomarkers of early atypical corticospinal tract development in infants with perinatal stroke","volume":"8","author":"Kowalski","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Clin. Med."},{"key":"ref46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brs.2014.10.012","article-title":"Safety of noninvasive brain stimulation in children and adolescents","volume":"8","author":"Krishnan","year":"2015","journal-title":"Brain Stimul."},{"key":"ref47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"898","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-8749.2008.03119.x","article-title":"Do patients with congenital hemiparesis and ipsilateral corticospinal projections respond differently to constraint-induced movement therapy?","volume":"50","author":"Kuhnke","year":"2008","journal-title":"Dev. Med. Child Neurol."},{"key":"ref48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.neuro.31.060407.125547","article-title":"Descending pathways in motor control","volume":"31","author":"Lemon","year":"2008","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"316","DOI":"10.1213\/01.ane.0000226142.15746.b2","article-title":"The effect of age on motor evoked potentials in children under propofol\/isoflurane anesthesia","volume":"103","author":"Lieberman","year":"2006","journal-title":"Anesth. Analg."},{"key":"ref50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bjpt.2018.11.002","article-title":"EMG breakthrough during cortical silent period in congenital hemiparesis: a descriptive case series","volume":"24","author":"Lixandr\u00e3o","year":"2020","journal-title":"Braz. J. Phys. Ther."},{"key":"ref51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"102563","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nicl.2021.102563","article-title":"Evaluating transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) induced electric fields in pediatric stroke","volume":"29","author":"Mantell","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neuroimage Clin"},{"key":"ref52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1007\/s00221-007-1055-4","article-title":"Effects of motor preparation and spatial attention on corticospinal excitability in a delayed-response paradigm","volume":"182","author":"Mars","year":"2007","journal-title":"Exp. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1177\/1073858404270843","article-title":"The corticospinal system: from development to motor control","volume":"11","author":"Martin","year":"2005","journal-title":"Neuroscientist"},{"key":"ref54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"573","DOI":"10.1111\/dmcn.15720","article-title":"Safety and efficacy of non-invasive brain stimulation for the upper extremities in children with cerebral palsy: a systematic review","volume":"66","author":"Metelski","year":"2024","journal-title":"Dev. Med. Child Neurol."},{"key":"ref55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2021.650830","article-title":"Clinical utility of transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) in the Presurgical evaluation of motor, speech, and language functions in young children with refractory epilepsy or brain tumor: preliminary evidence","volume":"12","author":"Narayana","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Neurol."},{"key":"ref56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2115","DOI":"10.1212\/wnl.0000000000004650","article-title":"Successful motor mapping with transcranial magnetic stimulation in an infant: a case report","volume":"89","author":"Narayana","year":"2017","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"689","DOI":"10.1093\/ptj\/pzz028","article-title":"Safety and feasibility of transcranial magnetic stimulation as an exploratory assessment of corticospinal connectivity in infants after perinatal brain injury: an observational study","volume":"99","author":"Nemanich","year":"2019","journal-title":"Phys. Ther."},{"key":"ref58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"897","DOI":"10.1001\/jamapediatrics.2017.1689","article-title":"Early, accurate diagnosis and early intervention in cerebral palsy","volume":"171","author":"Novak","year":"2017","journal-title":"JAMA Pediatr."},{"key":"ref59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.3109\/17518423.2016.1139008","article-title":"Stability of stereognosis after pediatric repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation and constraint-induced movement therapy clinical trial","volume":"20","author":"Rich","year":"2017","journal-title":"Dev. Neurorehabil."},{"key":"ref60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"598","DOI":"10.1089\/cap.2015.0157","article-title":"Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation\/behavioral intervention clinical trial: long-term follow-up of outcomes in congenital hemiparesis","volume":"26","author":"Rich","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Child Adolesc. Psychopharmacol."},{"key":"ref61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1177\/1550059419899323","article-title":"Ipsilateral corticospinal tract excitability contributes to the severity of mirror movements in unilateral cerebral palsy: a case series","volume":"51","author":"Rich","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. EEG Neurosci."},{"key":"ref62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-8749.2007.tb12610.x","article-title":"A report: the definition and classification of cerebral palsy April 2006","volume":"109","author":"Rosenbaum","year":"2007","journal-title":"Dev. Med. Child Neurol."},{"key":"ref63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1007\/s00221-008-1278-z","article-title":"Trial-to-trial size variability of motor-evoked potentials. A study using the triple stimulation technique","volume":"187","author":"R\u00f6sler","year":"2008","journal-title":"Exp. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinph.2020.10.003","article-title":"Safety and recommendations for TMS use in healthy subjects and patient populations, with updates on training, ethical and regulatory issues: expert guidelines","volume":"132","author":"Rossi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2008","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinph.2009.08.016","article-title":"Safety, ethical considerations, and application guidelines for the use of transcranial magnetic stimulation in clinical practice and research","volume":"120","author":"Rossi","year":"2009","journal-title":"Clin. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"268","DOI":"10.1097\/pep.0000000000000886","article-title":"Study protocol: multimodal longitudinal assessment of infant brain organization and recovery in perinatal brain injury","volume":"34","author":"Saiote","year":"2022","journal-title":"Pediatr. Phys. Ther."},{"key":"ref67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"610","DOI":"10.1111\/dmcn.15743","article-title":"Cerebral palsy pain instruments: recommended tools for clinical research studies by the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke cerebral palsy common data elements project","volume":"66","author":"Schiariti","year":"2024","journal-title":"Dev. Med. Child Neurol."},{"key":"ref68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"250","DOI":"10.1177\/1545968316675427","article-title":"Does corticospinal tract connectivity influence the response to intensive bimanual therapy in children with unilateral cerebral palsy?","volume":"31","author":"Smorenburg","year":"2017","journal-title":"Neurorehabil. Neural Repair"},{"key":"ref69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2827","DOI":"10.1113\/jp281885","article-title":"Motor potentials evoked by transcranial magnetic stimulation: interpreting a simple measure of a complex system","volume":"601","author":"Spampinato","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"469","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-7580.2010.01262.x","article-title":"Reorganization after pre- and perinatal brain lesions*","volume":"217","author":"Staudt","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Anat."},{"key":"ref71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1080\/17434440.2023.2299310","article-title":"Single-pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation for assessment of motor development in infants with early brain injury","volume":"21","author":"Sutter","year":"2024","journal-title":"Expert Rev. Med. Devices"},{"key":"ref72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jocn.2020.04.087","article-title":"A transcranial magnetic stimulation study for the investigation of corticospinal motor pathways in children with cerebral palsy","volume":"78","author":"Tekgul","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Clin. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2346","DOI":"10.1093\/cercor\/bhu032","article-title":"What makes the muscle twitch: motor system connectivity and TMS-induced activity","volume":"25","author":"Volz","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cereb. Cortex"},{"key":"ref74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1111\/nyas.12314","article-title":"Issues in the timing of integrated early interventions: contributions from nutrition, neuroscience, and psychological research","volume":"1308","author":"Wachs","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1016\/0168-5597(92)90135-X","article-title":"Magnetic brain stimulation and brain size: relevance to animal studies","volume":"85","author":"Weissman","year":"1992","journal-title":"Electroencephalogr. Clin. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.1016\/j.spen.2013.06.011","article-title":"Training to enhance walking in children with cerebral palsy: are we missing the window of opportunity?","volume":"20","author":"Yang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Semin. Pediatr. Neurol."},{"key":"ref77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"565","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brs.2019.12.025","article-title":"Safety and tolerability of transcranial magnetic and direct current stimulation in children: prospective single center evidence from 3.5 million stimulations","volume":"13","author":"Zewdie","year":"2020","journal-title":"Brain Stimul."}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Human Neuroscience"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fnhum.2025.1686054\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,15]],"date-time":"2025-10-15T05:42:31Z","timestamp":1760506951000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fnhum.2025.1686054\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,15]]},"references-count":77,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fnhum.2025.1686054"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fnhum.2025.1686054","relation":{},"ISSN":["1662-5161"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1662-5161","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,15]]},"article-number":"1686054"}}