{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,18]],"date-time":"2026-08-18T04:20:57Z","timestamp":1787026857424,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":200,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,8]],"date-time":"2026-05-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1778198400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Hum. Neurosci."],"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Disorders of consciousness (DoC) following severe brain injury pose significant diagnostic and therapeutic challenges. This narrative review comprehensively examines the current evidence for neuromodulation techniques in promoting consciousness recovery, including their mechanisms, efficacy, and future directions.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>We conducted a narrative review of evidence from randomized controlled trials, meta-analyses, and pilot studies investigating non-invasive and minimally invasive neuromodulation techniques for DoC. PubMed, Web of Science, Embase, CNKI, and Wanfang databases were searched from inception through December 2025. Techniques reviewed include transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), transcranial electrical stimulation (tES), median nerve stimulation (MNS), transcutaneous auricular vagus nerve stimulation (taVNS), transcranial focused ultrasound (tFUS), acupuncture, and spinal cord stimulation (SCS).<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>High-frequency repetitive TMS (10\u201320\u202fHz) targeting the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex showed significant CRS-R improvements with sustained effects. Right MNS (8\u202fh\/day, 2\u202fweeks) significantly increased consciousness recovery rates in acute traumatic brain injury (RR\u202f=\u202f1.36, 95% CI 1.18\u20131.56). Anodal tDCS demonstrated modest benefits, particularly in MCS patients. taVNS improved consciousness in MCS but not UWS patients. Short-term SCS (70\u202fHz) produced sustained improvements, especially in MCS\u202f\u2212\u202fpatients. Preliminary tFUS studies targeting the thalamus showed promising results. Combined interventions exhibited synergistic effects. Treatment responses varied by consciousness level, etiology, and individual factors. Adverse events were minimal across modalities.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Emerging evidence suggests that neuromodulation may have therapeutic potential for DoC, with comparatively stronger support currently available for high-frequency rTMS, right MNS, and SCS. Future research should prioritize large-scale RCTs, predictive biomarker identification, personalized closed-loop protocols, and optimal combination strategies, with a gradual shift from deterministic to individualized treatment paradigmss.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2026.1790010","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,8]],"date-time":"2026-05-08T05:50:12Z","timestamp":1778219412000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Non-invasive neuroregulation techniques applied to patients with consciousness disorders: a narrative review"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"20","author":[{"given":"Zhijie","family":"Cao","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"First Clinical Medical College, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine","place":["Jinan, Shandong, China"]},{"name":"The First School of Clinical Medicine of Binzhou Medical University, Binzhou Medical University Hospital","place":["Binzhou, Shandong, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hongzhen","family":"Du","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The First School of Clinical Medicine of Binzhou Medical University, Binzhou Medical University Hospital","place":["Binzhou, Shandong, China"]},{"name":"School of Special Education and Rehabilitation, Binzhou Medical University","place":["Yantai, Shandong, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yufeng","family":"Zhou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The First School of Clinical Medicine of Binzhou Medical University, Binzhou Medical University Hospital","place":["Binzhou, Shandong, China"]},{"name":"School of Special Education and Rehabilitation, Binzhou Medical University","place":["Yantai, Shandong, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shutong","family":"Mei","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The First School of Clinical Medicine of Binzhou Medical University, Binzhou Medical University Hospital","place":["Binzhou, Shandong, China"]},{"name":"School of Special Education and Rehabilitation, Binzhou Medical University","place":["Yantai, Shandong, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zhangyong","family":"Xia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"First Clinical Medical College, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine","place":["Jinan, Shandong, China"]},{"name":"Department of Neurology, The Second People's Hospital of Liaocheng","place":["Liaocheng, Shandong, China"]},{"name":"Department of Neurology, Liaocheng People's Hospital","place":["Liaocheng, Shandong, China"]},{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Dampness Syndrome of Chinese Medicine, Shandong Subcenter","place":["Liaocheng, Shandong, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yang","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The First School of Clinical Medicine of Binzhou Medical University, Binzhou Medical University Hospital","place":["Binzhou, Shandong, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1776","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brs.2023.11.018","article-title":"Multi-scale model of axonal and dendritic polarization by transcranial direct current stimulation in realistic head geometry","volume":"16","author":"Aberra","year":"2023","journal-title":"Brain Stimul."},{"key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2465","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/114.6.2465","article-title":"Potentials evoked in human and monkey cerebral cortex by stimulation of the median nerve. 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