{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,28]],"date-time":"2026-09-28T22:10:52Z","timestamp":1790633452632,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":82,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,2]],"date-time":"2026-06-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1780358400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Hum. Neurosci."],"abstract":"<jats:p>Post-stroke motor dysfunction is one of the leading causes of acquired disability worldwide. The induction and maintenance of neuroplasticity constitute the core mechanisms underlying motor function recovery. Conventional open-loop brain\u2013computer interfaces (BCIs) lack real-time closed-loop feedback and are therefore unable to reliably activate the \u201ctemporal contingency\u201d principle required by Hebbian synaptic remodeling, resulting in limited rehabilitation efficacy. Multimodal closed-loop BCIs integrate motor intent decoding, functional electrical stimulation (FES), virtual reality (VR), and exoskeleton-mediated proprioceptive feedback to construct a complete sensorimotor closed-loop circuit. These systems can precisely induce activity-dependent synaptic plasticity, facilitate cortical reorganization, and ameliorate interhemispheric inhibitory imbalance. The present review systematically examines the theoretical foundations of neuroplasticity induction by multimodal closed-loop BCIs following stroke, the constituent system components, electrophysiological and neuroimaging evidence, and the key factors modulating neuroplasticity induction efficacy. Future directions toward personalized adaptive closed-loop systems and long-term home-based rehabilitation are discussed. This review integrates converging evidence from electroencephalography, functional magnetic resonance imaging, transcranial magnetic stimulation, and randomized controlled trials to establish a comprehensive mechanistic framework for multimodal BCI-mediated neuroplasticity, and provides reference for both basic research and clinical translation in this field.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2026.1828191","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,2]],"date-time":"2026-06-02T05:42:44Z","timestamp":1780378964000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Advances in mechanisms of neuroplasticity induced by multimodal closed-loop brain\u2013computer interfaces after stroke"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"20","author":[{"given":"Yufeng","family":"Chen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences, Dalian Medical University","place":["Dalian, Liaoning, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yongmei","family":"Jiang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Second Affiliated Hospital of Dalian Medical University (Diamond Bay Campus)","place":["Dalian, Liaoning, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xiran","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Second Affiliated Hospital of Dalian Medical University (Diamond Bay Campus)","place":["Dalian, Liaoning, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Miao","family":"Zeng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Second Affiliated Hospital of Dalian Medical University (Diamond Bay Campus)","place":["Dalian, Liaoning, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jiahao","family":"Cui","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Second Affiliated Hospital of Dalian Medical University (Diamond Bay Campus)","place":["Dalian, Liaoning, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2930","DOI":"10.21437\/Interspeech.2025-1334","article-title":"MiSTR: multi-modal iEEG-to-speech synthesis with transformer-based prosody prediction and neural phase reconstruction","author":"Al-Radhi","year":"2025","journal-title":"Proc. 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