{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,5]],"date-time":"2026-08-05T05:52:06Z","timestamp":1785909126790,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":64,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,5]],"date-time":"2026-08-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1785888000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Hum. Neurosci."],"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Introduction<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Many studies have examined the neural bases of word translation based on the revised hierarchical model (RHM). However, the findings reported thus far, mostly focusing on advanced or elementary second-language (L2) learners, have been diverse and often inconsistent. Thus, to explore possible neural bases for translation asymmetry, there is a distinct need to examine word translations by intermediate L2 learners.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>We examined differences in cortical activation patterns during L1 (first language)-to-L2 and L2-to-L1word translation for high and low word familiarity in intermediate-level Japanese learners of English. TOEIC scores were used to confirm intermediate English proficiency, and functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) was used to examine cortical activation patterns during word translation. Data from 36 participants were used for analyses.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Greater activation was observed in the frontopolar area, the pars triangularis of Broca\u2019s area, and the bilateral dorsolateral prefrontal cortex for low-familiarity words regardless of translation direction.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Discussion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>These findings provide no clear evidence of translation asymmetry in intermediate L2 learners but suggest the possible involvement of concept mediation in both translation directions.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2026.1881085","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,5]],"date-time":"2026-08-05T05:38:42Z","timestamp":1785908322000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Translation direction and word familiarity in word translation: an fNIRS study of intermediate Japanese learners of English"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"20","author":[{"given":"Wakana","family":"Kawai","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Applied Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory, Chuo University","place":["Tokyo, Japan"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kiyomitsu","family":"Niioka","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Applied Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory, Chuo University","place":["Tokyo, Japan"]},{"name":"Department of Psychology and Crime, School of Psychological Sciences, University of Human Environments","place":["Ehimei, Japan"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hikari","family":"Tanaka","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Applied Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory, Chuo University","place":["Tokyo, Japan"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Katsumasa","family":"Shinozuka","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Applied Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory, Chuo University","place":["Tokyo, Japan"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yasushi","family":"Kyutoku","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Global Management, Chuo University","place":["Tokyo, Japan"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ippeita","family":"Dan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Applied Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory, Chuo University","place":["Tokyo, Japan"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"242","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneuroling.2006.10.003","article-title":"Bilingual language production: the neurocognition of language representation and control","volume":"20","author":"Abutalebi","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. 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