{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,14]],"date-time":"2026-07-14T06:04:48Z","timestamp":1784009088054,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":37,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,14]],"date-time":"2026-07-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1783987200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Hum. Neurosci."],"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is increasingly recognized as a disorder of neural connectivity and network architecture. While EEG neurofeedback (NFB) has shown clinical efficacy in ameliorating ASD symptoms, the underlying neurophysiological mechanisms\u2014specifically regarding high-order network reorganization beyond simple power spectrum changes\u2014remain poorly understood. Furthermore, there is a need to validate whether robust biomarkers can be identified using low-density EEG systems suitable for preschool children.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      In this randomized, sham-controlled trial, 40 preschool children with ASD (mean age 5.56\u202fyears) were assigned to either an active NFB group (\n                      <jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u202f=\u202f20) or a sham-control group (\n                      <jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u202f=\u202f20). The experimental group underwent a 4-week alpha-band NFB training protocol using an 8-channel portable EEG system. We employed a multidimensional analytical framework integrating High-Order Functional Connectivity (HOFC), dynamic Network State Entropy (NSE), and cross-frequency interaction analysis to characterize neural reorganization. Clinical improvements were assessed using the Autism Behavior Checklist (ABC).\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      The NFB group exhibited significant reductions in ABC total scores and Social Relating subscale scores. Neurophysiologically, while conventional Low-Order Functional Connectivity (LOFC) failed to capture significant global changes, the alpha-band HOFC revealed a systemic optimization toward a more efficient small-world architecture, characterized by increased Clustering Coefficient (CC) and Local Efficiency (LE), and decreased Characteristic Path Length (CPL). Additionally, NSE analysis indicated increased dynamic flexibility across multiple frequency bands, reflecting a reduction in neural rigidity. Crucially, the optimization of alpha-band HOFC metrics was significantly correlated with the degree of clinical symptom alleviation (\n                      <jats:italic>r<\/jats:italic>\n                      =\u202f0.678,\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      =\u202f0.015).\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>These findings demonstrate that alpha-band NFB facilitates clinical recovery in preschool children with ASD by inducing frequency-specific high-order network reorganization. The study suggests that alpha-band HOFC may serve as a potential exploratory electrophysiological correlate for monitoring therapeutic responses.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2026.1897176","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,14]],"date-time":"2026-07-14T05:37:20Z","timestamp":1784007440000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["High-order alpha-band network reorganization underpins clinical symptom alleviation following EEG neurofeedback in preschool children with autism spectrum disorder: a multidimensional study"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"20","author":[{"given":"Jiannan","family":"Kang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Child Rehabilitation Division, Ningbo Rehabilitation Hospital","place":["Ningbo, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yuqi","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Child Rehabilitation Division, Ningbo Rehabilitation Hospital","place":["Ningbo, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xiaoli","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning, Beijing Normal University","place":["Beijing, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"He","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Automation Science and Engineering, South China University of Technology","place":["Guangzhou, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","volume-title":"The Efficacy of Neurofeedback in the Treatment of Autism","author":"Akhavan","year":"2018"},{"key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"353","DOI":"10.1038\/nn.4502","article-title":"Network neuroscience","volume":"20","author":"Bassett","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. 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