{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,7]],"date-time":"2026-09-07T06:08:15Z","timestamp":1788761295409,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":46,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,7]],"date-time":"2026-09-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1788739200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Hum. Neurosci."],"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Objective<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>To investigate the effects of different motor skills (open and closed) on the cognitive switching function and hemodynamic response characteristics of the prefrontal cortex in male athletes, providing a neurocognitive basis for the scientific selection of high-level athletes and the development of personalized cross-training programs.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      This study recruited a total of 31 male Level 2 athletes, who were divided into an open-skill group (\n                      <jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u202f=\u202f16) and a closed-skill group (\n                      <jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u202f=\u202f15) based on the specific sports they had been practicing for a long time. Functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) combined with a more-odd shift cognitive switching task was used to monitor changes in the oxyhemoglobin (HbO2) concentration in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), frontal pole (FPC), orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), and inferior frontal gyrus (IFG) in real time while the subjects performed the task in a natural state. Mixed-design ANOVA and independent samples T tests were used to systematically compare the behavioral performance (reaction time, accuracy, and switching cost) and brain region activation characteristics between the two groups.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      1. Behavioral Results: Although there were no significant differences in overall accuracy or reaction time between the two groups, the interaction effect between group and condition was significant for reaction time. Under the premise of equal accuracy, the reaction time conversion cost of the open skill group (126.26\u202f\u00b1\u202f92.26\u202fms) was significantly lower than that of the closed skill group (230.72\u202f\u00b1\u202f143.03\u202fms), indicating higher cognitive conversion efficiency.2. HbO\u2082 Activation Results: During the cognitive conversion task, compared with the open skill group, the closed skill group had significantly higher HbO2 activation levels in the DLPFC (\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u202f=\u202f0.001), FPC (\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u202f=\u202f0.004), and OFC (\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u202f=\u202f0.001). There was no significant difference in activation levels in the IFG between the two groups (\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u202f&amp;gt;\u202f0.05). 3. HbR Activation Results: There were no significant intergroup differences in deoxygenated hemoglobin (HbR) levels across the four brain regions (IFG, DLPFC, FPC, and OFC) (\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u202f&amp;gt;\u202f0.05)0.4. HbT Activation Results: Total hemoglobin (HbT) activation in the DLPFC (\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u202f=\u202f0.008), FPC (\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u202f=\u202f0.009), and OFC (\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u202f=\u202f0.009) was significantly higher in the closed skill group than in the open skill group. There was no significant difference in HbT activation levels in the IFG between the two groups (\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u202f&amp;gt;\u202f0.05)0.5. Correlation Results: Pearson correlation analysis revealed that there was no significant linear correlation between behavioral switching costs and cortical activation levels in any of the four brain regions for either the open or closed motor skill group (\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u202f&amp;gt;\u202f0.05).\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Long-term open-skill training in dynamic, unpredictable contexts may enhance athletes\u2019 cognitive flexibility and promote more efficient cortical resource allocation in critical cognitive control regions (DLPFC, FPC, and OFC). This study empirically validates the \u201cneural efficiency hypothesis\u201d and the \u201cbroad transfer hypothesis\u201d from a neuroimaging standpoint. This study preliminarily indicates that moderate integration of open-skill cross-training into closed-skill programs may optimize the executive control network; however, the actual advantages of this method require validation through future extensive longitudinal intervention studies.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2026.1905190","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,7]],"date-time":"2026-09-07T05:33:34Z","timestamp":1788759214000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Differences in cognitive shifts and prefrontal activation among athletes with different motor skills: an fNIRS study"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"20","author":[{"given":"Tong","family":"Zhu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Harbin Institute of Physical Education","place":["Harbin, Heilongjiang, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yufei","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Harbin Institute of Physical Education","place":["Harbin, Heilongjiang, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Su","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Harbin Institute of Physical Education","place":["Harbin, Heilongjiang, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chen","family":"Ning","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Harbin Institute of Physical Education","place":["Harbin, Heilongjiang, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Haolin","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Jilin Institute of Physical Education","place":["Harbin, Heilongjiang, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jiaxing","family":"Tian","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Harbin Institute of Physical Education","place":["Harbin, Heilongjiang, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ying","family":"Qin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Harbin Institute of Physical Education","place":["Harbin, Heilongjiang, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Liang","family":"Mu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Harbin Institute of Physical Education","place":["Harbin, Heilongjiang, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Huayong","family":"Wu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Harbin Institute of Physical Education","place":["Harbin, Heilongjiang, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"560","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mad.2011.09.005","article-title":"Short bouts of mild-intensity physical exercise improve spatial learning and memory in aging rats: involvement of hippocampal plasticity via AKT, CREB and BDNF signaling","volume":"132","author":"Aguiar","year":"2011","journal-title":"Mech. 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