{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,11]],"date-time":"2026-11-11T01:56:44Z","timestamp":1794362204465,"version":"4.9.0"},"reference-count":135,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,7]],"date-time":"2026-04-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1775520000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Neurosci."],"abstract":"<jats:p>This paper systematically reviews the pivotal role and bidirectional regulatory mechanisms of the Vestibular-hippocampal pathway in the onset and progression of neurodegenerative diseases (such as Alzheimer\u2019s disease), focusing on the common comorbidity of vestibular dysfunction and cognitive decline. Evidence spanning molecular to behavioral levels indicates that vestibular signal loss can induce hippocampal atrophy and spatial memory impairment through neuroinflammation, impaired synaptic plasticity, and disrupted theta rhythms. Conversely, hippocampal degeneration further impairs vestibular information integration, creating a vicious cycle. Intervention approaches such as vestibular rehabilitation, cognitive training, and neurostimulation show potential for slowing co-morbidity progression. Future research should focus on developing animal models simulating vestibular-neurodegenerative co-morbidity, conducting longitudinal clinical validation using multimodal imaging and electrophysiology techniques, and optimizing neuromodulation strategies and targeted molecular interventions to advance this mechanism toward early diagnosis and precision treatment.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2026.1779268","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,7]],"date-time":"2026-04-07T05:28:27Z","timestamp":1775539707000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Mechanistic research on the vestibular-hippocampal pathway in neurodegenerative diseases: an integrative perspective from molecular to behavioral levels"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"20","author":[{"given":"Dingyuan","family":"Dai","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Otorhinolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Beijing Tsinghua Changgung Hospital, School of Clinical Medicine, Tsinghua University","place":["Beijing, China"]},{"name":"School of Clinical Medicine, Tsinghua University","place":["Beijing, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Junyan","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Otorhinolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Beijing Tsinghua Changgung Hospital, School of Clinical Medicine, Tsinghua University","place":["Beijing, China"]},{"name":"School of Clinical Medicine, Tsinghua University","place":["Beijing, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xiang","family":"Guo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Otorhinolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Beijing Tsinghua Changgung Hospital, School of Clinical Medicine, Tsinghua University","place":["Beijing, China"]},{"name":"School of Clinical Medicine, Tsinghua University","place":["Beijing, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jiabing","family":"Sun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Otorhinolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Beijing Tsinghua Changgung Hospital, School of Clinical Medicine, Tsinghua University","place":["Beijing, China"]},{"name":"School of Clinical Medicine, Tsinghua University","place":["Beijing, China"]},{"name":"Department of Otorhinolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Zhuhai People\u2019s Hospital","place":["Zhuhai, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Haijin","family":"Yi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Otorhinolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Beijing Tsinghua Changgung Hospital, School of Clinical Medicine, Tsinghua University","place":["Beijing, China"]},{"name":"School of Clinical Medicine, Tsinghua University","place":["Beijing, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1016\/j.physbeh.2016.02.021","article-title":"Noisy galvanic vestibular stimulation enhances spatial memory in cognitive impairment-induced by intracerebroventricular-streptozotocin administration","volume":"157","author":"Adel Ghahraman","year":"2016","journal-title":"Physiol. Behav."},{"key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1509","DOI":"10.1002\/hipo.22651","article-title":"Hippocampal and striatal M(1) -muscarinic acetylcholine receptors are down-regulated following bilateral vestibular loss in rats","volume":"26","author":"Aitken","year":"2016","journal-title":"Hippocampus"},{"key":"ref3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3319","DOI":"10.1007\/s00429-017-1407-1","article-title":"Effects of bilateral vestibular deafferentation in rat on hippocampal theta response to somatosensory stimulation, acetylcholine release, and cholinergic neurons in the pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus","volume":"222","author":"Aitken","year":"2017","journal-title":"Brain Struct. Funct."},{"key":"ref4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"548","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.00548.2017","article-title":"The modulation of hippocampal theta rhythm by the vestibular system","volume":"119","author":"Aitken","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"642","DOI":"10.1002\/hipo.20304","article-title":"Processing idiothetic cues to remember visited locations: hippocampal and vestibular contributions to radial-arm maze performance","volume":"17","author":"Allen","year":"2007","journal-title":"Hippocampus"},{"key":"ref6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1256","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.00016.2018","article-title":"Idiothetic signal processing and spatial orientation in patients with unilateral hippocampal sclerosis","volume":"120","author":"Anagnostou","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"719","DOI":"10.1038\/nature21692","article-title":"Mapping of a non-spatial dimension by the hippocampal-entorhinal circuit","volume":"543","author":"Aronov","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7219","DOI":"10.1109\/embc46164.2021.9630746","article-title":"Postural sway characteristics are affected by Alzheimer's disease","volume":"2021","author":"Ashiri","year":"2021","journal-title":"Annu. Int. Conf. IEEE Eng. Med. Biol. Soc."},{"key":"ref9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2468","DOI":"10.1002\/alz.12580","article-title":"Neurodegeneration and astrogliosis in the entorhinal cortex in Alzheimer's disease: stereological layer-specific assessment and proteomic analysis","volume":"18","author":"Astillero-Lopez","year":"2022","journal-title":"Alzheimers Dement."},{"key":"ref10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"330","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neulet.2010.10.050","article-title":"Cannabinoid CB(1) receptor expression and affinity in the rat hippocampus following bilateral vestibular deafferentation","volume":"487","author":"Baek","year":"2011","journal-title":"Neurosci. Lett."},{"key":"ref11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nlm.2016.03.009","article-title":"Basal dendritic length is reduced in the rat hippocampus following bilateral vestibular deafferentation","volume":"131","author":"Balabhadrapatruni","year":"2016","journal-title":"Neurobiol. Learn. Mem."},{"key":"ref12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100956","DOI":"10.1016\/j.arr.2019.100956","article-title":"Olfactory dysfunction in the pathophysiological continuum of dementia","volume":"55","author":"Bathini","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ageing Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2438","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2023.05.026","article-title":"Magnetic actuation of otoliths allows behavioral and brain-wide neuronal exploration of vestibulo-motor processing in larval zebrafish","volume":"33","author":"Beiza-Canelo","year":"2023","journal-title":"Curr. Biol."},{"key":"ref14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"814","DOI":"10.1002\/hipo.20942","article-title":"Influence of vestibular input on spatial and nonspatial memory and on hippocampal NMDA receptors","volume":"22","author":"Besnard","year":"2012","journal-title":"Hippocampus"},{"key":"ref15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"220","DOI":"10.1016\/j.smrv.2018.09.001","article-title":"The balance of sleep: role of the vestibular sensory system","volume":"42","author":"Besnard","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sleep Med. Rev."},{"key":"ref16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"923911","DOI":"10.3389\/fnsys.2022.923911","article-title":"Dynamic hippocampal CA2 responses to contextual spatial novelty","volume":"16","author":"Bhasin","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Syst. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"138","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brainres.2006.03.101","article-title":"The supragenual nucleus: a putative relay station for ascending vestibular signs to head direction cells","volume":"1094","author":"Biazoli","year":"2006","journal-title":"Brain Res."},{"key":"ref18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"731","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaoto.2022.1303","article-title":"Associations of bilateral Vestibulopathy with cognition in older adults matched with healthy controls for hearing status","volume":"148","author":"Bosmans","year":"2022","journal-title":"JAMA Otolaryngol. Head Neck Surg."},{"key":"ref19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.3233\/VES-230076","article-title":"Is vestibular function related to human hippocampal volume?","volume":"34","author":"Bosmans","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Vestib. Res."},{"key":"ref20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"352","DOI":"10.1038\/nrneurol.2017.58","article-title":"The dizzy patient: don't forget disorders of the central vestibular system","volume":"13","author":"Brandt","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurol."},{"key":"ref21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2732","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awh617","article-title":"Vestibular loss causes hippocampal atrophy and impaired spatial memory in humans","volume":"128","author":"Brandt","year":"2005","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"ref22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/dad2.12400","article-title":"Sensory impairment and algorithmic classification of early cognitive impairment","volume":"15","author":"Cai","year":"2023","journal-title":"Alzheimers Dement."},{"key":"ref23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"931","DOI":"10.1007\/s00234-024-03535-4","article-title":"Increased parietal operculum functional connectivity following vestibular rehabilitation in benign paroxysmal positional vertigo patients with residual dizziness: a randomized controlled resting-state fMRI study","volume":"67","author":"Chen","year":"2025","journal-title":"Neuroradiology"},{"key":"ref24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e15040","DOI":"10.7717\/peerj.15040","article-title":"Spatial orientation, postural control and the vestibular system in healthy elderly and Alzheimer's dementia","volume":"11","author":"Chepisheva","year":"2023","journal-title":"PeerJ."},{"key":"ref25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"986","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tins.2023.08.009","article-title":"Internal models of self-motion: neural computations by the vestibular cerebellum","volume":"46","author":"Cullen","year":"2023","journal-title":"Trends Neurosci."},{"key":"ref26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1007\/s11011-025-01631-9","article-title":"Microglial activation as a hallmark of neuroinflammation in Alzheimer's disease","volume":"40","author":"Ebrahimi","year":"2025","journal-title":"Metab. Brain Dis."},{"key":"ref27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"102403","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pneurobio.2023.102403","article-title":"Long-lasting spatial memory deficits and impaired hippocampal plasticity following unilateral vestibular loss","volume":"223","author":"El Mahmoudi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Prog. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"693","DOI":"10.3390\/cells11172693","article-title":"Microglial dynamics modulate vestibular compensation in a rodent model of Vestibulopathy and condition the expression of plasticity mechanisms in the Deafferented vestibular nuclei","volume":"11","author":"El Mahmoudi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cells"},{"key":"ref29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"286","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2018.00286","article-title":"Cognitive rehabilitation in bilateral vestibular patients: a computational perspective","volume":"9","author":"Ellis","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Neurol."},{"key":"ref30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e099765","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2025-099765","article-title":"Assessment of vestibulo-ocular reflex function in people with Parkinson\u2019s disease: a cross-sectional study in a rehabilitation setting using the video head impulse test","volume":"15","author":"Ferri","year":"2025","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"ref31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1186\/s13024-023-00618-3","article-title":"Leveraging the glymphatic and meningeal lymphatic systems as therapeutic strategies in Alzheimer's disease: an updated overview of nonpharmacological therapies","volume":"18","author":"Formolo","year":"2023","journal-title":"Mol. Neurodegener."},{"key":"ref32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.3390\/audiolres12030026","article-title":"The navigation ability test (NAT 2.0): from football player performance to balance rehabilitation in chronic unilateral vestibular loss","volume":"12","author":"Gamba","year":"2022","journal-title":"Audiol. Res."},{"key":"ref33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1265","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2023.02.048","article-title":"Neuronal birthdate reveals topography in a vestibular brainstem circuit for gaze stabilization","volume":"33","author":"Goldblatt","year":"2023","journal-title":"Curr. Biol."},{"key":"ref34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e075179","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2023-075179","article-title":"Evaluation of hearing levels and vestibular function and the impact on cognitive performance in (pre)-symptomatic patients with DFNA9: protocol for a prospective longitudinal study (Rosetta study)","volume":"13","author":"Gommeren","year":"2023","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"ref35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1398764","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2024.1398764","article-title":"Vestibular dysfunction in Parkinson\u2019s disease: a neglected topic","volume":"15","author":"Gui","year":"2024","journal-title":"Front. Neurol."},{"key":"ref36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5360","DOI":"10.3892\/ijmm.2024.5360","article-title":"Vestibular dysfunction leads to cognitive impairments: state of knowledge in the field and clinical perspectives (review)","volume":"53","author":"Guo","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"106128","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nbd.2023.106128","article-title":"RGS14 limits seizure-induced mitochondrial oxidative stress and pathology in hippocampus","volume":"181","author":"Harbin","year":"2023","journal-title":"Neurobiol. Dis."},{"key":"ref38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1803","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2018.04.034","article-title":"Linear self-motion cues support the spatial distribution and stability of hippocampal place cells","volume":"28","author":"Harvey","year":"2018","journal-title":"Curr. Biol."},{"key":"ref39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2057","DOI":"10.1007\/s00405-020-06446-1","article-title":"Static and dynamic otolith reflex function in people with Parkinson's disease","volume":"278","author":"Hawkins","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur. Arch. Otorrinolaringol."},{"key":"ref40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.3389\/fnint.2014.00059","article-title":"Vestibular pathways involved in cognition","volume":"8","author":"Hitier","year":"2014","journal-title":"Front. Integr. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"108173","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heares.2021.108173","article-title":"Stratification of hippocampal electrophysiological activation evoked by selective electrical stimulation of different angular and linear acceleration sensors in the rat peripheral vestibular system","volume":"403","author":"Hitier","year":"2021","journal-title":"Hear. Res."},{"key":"ref42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"605","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.1994.72.2.605","article-title":"Effects of vestibular stimulation on acetylcholine release from rat hippocampus: an in vivo microdialysis study","volume":"72","author":"Horii","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1079","DOI":"10.1038\/s43587-025-00884-4","article-title":"Harnessing a noncanonical vestibular input in the head-direction network to rectify age-related navigational deficits","volume":"5","author":"Hu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nat. Aging"},{"key":"ref44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1153918","DOI":"10.3389\/fnagi.2023.1153918","article-title":"Research progress on vestibular dysfunction and visual-spatial cognition in patients with Alzheimer's disease","volume":"15","author":"Huang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front. Aging Neurosci."},{"key":"ref45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-6632.2009.03770.x","article-title":"Human hippocampal activation during stance and locomotion: fMRI study on healthy, blind, and vestibular-loss subjects","volume":"1164","author":"Jahn","year":"2009","journal-title":"Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"410","DOI":"10.1002\/lary.30816","article-title":"Effect of late-stage Meniere's disease and vestibular functional impairment on hippocampal atrophy","volume":"134","author":"Jian","year":"2024","journal-title":"Laryngoscope"},{"key":"ref47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.1038\/srep26301","article-title":"Multisensory effects on somatosensation: a trimodal visuo-vestibular-tactile interaction","volume":"6","author":"Kaliuzhna","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"765","DOI":"10.1097\/MAO.0000000000001838","article-title":"Vestibular function and hippocampal volume in the Baltimore longitudinal study of aging (BLSA)","volume":"39","author":"Kamil","year":"2018","journal-title":"Otol. Neurotol."},{"key":"ref49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1274","DOI":"10.1007\/s12264-024-01218-x","article-title":"Convergent neuroimaging and molecular signatures in mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer\u2019s disease: a data-driven Meta-analysis with N = 3,118","volume":"40","author":"Kang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Neurosci. Bull."},{"key":"ref50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neurobiolaging.2021.03.017","article-title":"Visual-vestibular integration is preserved with healthy aging in a simple acceleration detection task","volume":"104","author":"Kenney","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neurobiol. Aging"},{"key":"ref51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"532","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2021.10.031","article-title":"Multisensory coding of angular head velocity in the retrosplenial cortex","volume":"110","author":"Keshavarzi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"ref52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4640","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2021.07.010","article-title":"Hippocampal neurons construct a map of an abstract value space","volume":"184","author":"Knudsen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1093\/braincomms\/fcad115","article-title":"Lowering levels of reelin in entorhinal cortex layer II-neurons results in lowered levels of intracellular amyloid-\u03b2","volume":"5","author":"Kobro-Flatmoen","year":"2023","journal-title":"Brain Commun."},{"key":"ref54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101307","DOI":"10.1016\/j.arr.2021.101307","article-title":"Re-emphasizing early Alzheimer's disease pathology starting in select entorhinal neurons, with a special focus on mitophagy","volume":"67","author":"Kobro-Flatmoen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ageing Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"285","DOI":"10.1007\/s00415-025-13045-9","article-title":"Vestibular dysfunction: a hidden risk factor for Alzheimer's disease","volume":"272","author":"Koriath","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Neurol."},{"key":"ref56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2016.00139","article-title":"Beyond dizziness: virtual navigation, spatial anxiety and hippocampal volume in bilateral Vestibulopathy","volume":"10","author":"Kremmyda","year":"2016","journal-title":"Front. Hum. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"102402","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pneurobio.2023.102402","article-title":"Timely insertion of AMPA receptor in developing vestibular circuits is required for manifestation of righting reflexes and effective navigation","volume":"221","author":"Lai","year":"2023","journal-title":"Prog. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1111\/jon.13165","article-title":"An imaging review of the hippocampus and its common pathologies","volume":"34","author":"Lang","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Neuroimaging"},{"key":"ref59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e20787","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.20787","article-title":"Transformation of spatiotemporal dynamics in the macaque vestibular system from otolith afferents to cortex","volume":"6","author":"Laurens","year":"2017","journal-title":"eLife"},{"key":"ref60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1186\/s12984-025-01623-x","article-title":"Can virtual reality replace conventional vestibular rehabilitation tools in multisensory balance exercises for vestibular disorders? A non-inferiority study","volume":"22","author":"Le Perf","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Neuroeng. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"705","DOI":"10.3233\/JAD-142883","article-title":"Relationship between balance and cognitive performance in older people","volume":"45","author":"Leandri","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Alzheimer's Dis"},{"key":"ref62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1157931","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2023.1157931","article-title":"Functional and anatomical alterations in bilateral vestibulopathy: a multimodal neuroimaging study and clinical correlation","volume":"14","author":"Lee","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front. Neurol."},{"key":"ref63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"674","DOI":"10.1186\/s12916-026-04674-6","article-title":"A neuroimaging biomarker for disease staging in clinically diagnosed Alzheimer's disease","volume":"24","author":"Li","year":"2026","journal-title":"BMC Med."},{"key":"ref64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules28052080","article-title":"Two ferulic acid derivatives inhibit neuroinflammatory response in human HMC3 microglial cells via NF-\u03baB signaling pathway","volume":"28","author":"Li","year":"2023","journal-title":"Molecules"},{"key":"ref65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"699","DOI":"10.4088\/JCP.24m15699","article-title":"Risk of Alzheimer disease and vascular dementia in patients with peripheral vestibular disorders: a longitudinal study of 140,726 participants","volume":"86","author":"Lin","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Clin. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1007\/s00221-004-2168-7","article-title":"Cytosolic glucocorticoid receptor expression in the rat vestibular nucleus and hippocampus following unilateral vestibular deafferentation","volume":"162","author":"Lindsay","year":"2005","journal-title":"Exp. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.4103\/NRR.NRR-D-24-00802","article-title":"Current understanding and prospects for targeting neurogenesis in the treatment of cognitive impairment","volume":"21","author":"Liu","year":"2026","journal-title":"Neural Regen. Res."},{"key":"ref68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"411","DOI":"10.3233\/VES-2004-14601","article-title":"Nitric oxide synthase and arginase expression changes in the rat perirhinal and entorhinal cortices following unilateral vestibular damage: a link to deficits in object recognition?","volume":"14","author":"Liu","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Vestib. Res."},{"key":"ref69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1016\/S0006-8993(02)04146-X","article-title":"Nitric oxide synthase and arginase expression in the vestibular nucleus and hippocampus following unilateral vestibular deafferentation in the rat","volume":"966","author":"Liu","year":"","journal-title":"Brain Res."},{"key":"ref70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"965","DOI":"10.1016\/S0306-4522(02)00878-3","article-title":"Long-term changes in hippocampal n-methyl-D-aspartate receptor subunits following unilateral vestibular damage in rat","volume":"117","author":"Liu","year":"","journal-title":"Neuroscience"},{"key":"ref71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e221","DOI":"10.1093\/milmed\/usz159","article-title":"Implementation of a generalized vestibular rehabilitation approach","volume":"185","author":"Loftin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mil. Med."},{"key":"ref72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"649","DOI":"10.1038\/s41422-020-00448-8","article-title":"A novel somatosensory spatial navigation system outside the hippocampal formation","volume":"31","author":"Long","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell Res."},{"key":"ref73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"639","DOI":"10.1080\/17460441.2024.2348142","article-title":"Lessons learned from the failure of solanezumab as a prospective treatment strategy for Alzheimer's disease","volume":"19","author":"Lozupone","year":"2024","journal-title":"Expert Opin. Drug Discov."},{"key":"ref74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"25991","DOI":"10.31083\/JIN25991","article-title":"Changes in the parietal lobe subregion volume at various stages of Alzheimer's disease and the role in cognitively Normal and mild cognitive impairment conversion","volume":"24","author":"Lu","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Integr. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"11823","DOI":"10.1080\/21655979.2021.1997565","article-title":"Effect and mechanism of BDNF\/TrkB signaling on vestibular compensation","volume":"12","author":"Mao","year":"2021","journal-title":"Bioengineered"},{"key":"ref76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1007\/s00221-025-07079-8","article-title":"A wide-ranging review of galvanic vestibular stimulation: from its genesis to basic science and clinical applications","volume":"243","author":"Marchand","year":"2025","journal-title":"Exp. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/cells10123377","article-title":"Sensorimotor rehabilitation promotes vestibular compensation in a rodent model of acute peripheral Vestibulopathy by promoting Microgliogenesis in the Deafferented vestibular nuclei","volume":"10","author":"Marouane","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cells"},{"key":"ref78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1080\/13825585.2016.1263724","article-title":"Computerized cognitive training during physical inactivity improves executive functioning in older adults","volume":"25","author":"Marusic","year":"2018","journal-title":"Neuropsychol. Dev. Cogn. B Aging Neuropsychol. Cogn."},{"key":"ref79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1615","DOI":"10.1007\/s40520-018-1107-6","article-title":"Can physical and cognitive training based on episodic memory be combined in a new protocol for daily training?","volume":"31","author":"Maselli","year":"2019","journal-title":"Aging Clin. Exp. Res."},{"key":"ref80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"316","DOI":"10.1002\/alz.12190","article-title":"Alzheimer's & dementia: the journal of the Alzheimer's Association","volume":"17","author":"Mecca","year":"2021","journal-title":"Alzheimers Dement."},{"key":"ref81","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1145","DOI":"10.1038\/s42003-023-05506-6","article-title":"Repeated multi-domain cognitive training prevents cognitive decline, anxiety and amyloid pathology found in a mouse model of Alzheimer disease","volume":"6","author":"Mehla","year":"2023","journal-title":"Commun. Biol."},{"key":"ref82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"371","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.00144.2018","article-title":"Functional and anatomical relationships between the medial precentral cortex, dorsal striatum, and head direction cell circuitry II. Neuroanatomical studies","volume":"121","author":"Mehlman","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref83","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2457","DOI":"10.1007\/s00405-018-5109-y","article-title":"Gradient impact of cognitive decline in unilateral vestibular hypofunction after rehabilitation: preliminary findings","volume":"275","author":"Micarelli","year":"2018","journal-title":"Eur. Arch. Otorrinolaringol."},{"key":"ref84","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"125055","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpharm.2024.125055","article-title":"Peptide-based inhibitors and nanoparticles: emerging therapeutics for Alzheimer's disease","volume":"669","author":"Mojarad-Jabali","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm."},{"key":"ref85","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1259030","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2023.1259030","article-title":"Superior semicircular canal dehiscence and subsequent closure induces reversible impaired decision-making","volume":"14","author":"Mowery","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front. Neurol."},{"key":"ref86","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1176","DOI":"10.1002\/hipo.20963","article-title":"Septal elicitation of hippocampal theta rhythm did not repair cognitive and emotional deficits resulting from vestibular lesions","volume":"22","author":"Neo","year":"2012","journal-title":"Hippocampus"},{"key":"ref87","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.00382.2017","article-title":"Convergence of linear acceleration and yaw rotation signals on non-eye movement neurons in the vestibular nucleus of macaques","volume":"119","author":"Newlands","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref88","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"716795","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2021.716795","article-title":"Galvanic vestibular stimulation improves spatial cognition after unilateral Labyrinthectomy in mice","volume":"12","author":"Nguyen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Neurol."},{"key":"ref89","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-psych-021021-103038","article-title":"Cognitive, systems, and computational neurosciences of the self in motion","volume":"73","author":"Noel","year":"2022","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Psychol."},{"key":"ref90","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1093\/braincomms\/fcac074","article-title":"Quantitative and histologically validated measures of the entorhinal subfields in ex vivo MRI","volume":"4","author":"Oltmer","year":"2022","journal-title":"Brain Commun."},{"key":"ref91","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1657","DOI":"10.1007\/s00415-008-0950-3","article-title":"Improvement of motor functions by noisy vestibular stimulation in central neurodegenerative disorders","volume":"255","author":"Pan","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Neurol."},{"key":"ref92","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"18976","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-98540-5","article-title":"Dizziness in Parkinson's disease patients is associated with vestibular function","volume":"11","author":"Park","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref93","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.3389\/fnsys.2019.00014","article-title":"Impact of galvanic vestibular stimulation on anxiety level in young adults","volume":"13","author":"Pasquier","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Syst. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref94","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e13430","DOI":"10.1111\/psyp.13430","article-title":"Vestibular modulation of multisensory integration during actual and vicarious tactile stimulation","volume":"56","author":"Ponzo","year":"2019","journal-title":"Psychophysiology"},{"key":"ref95","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"798","DOI":"10.1037\/pag0000271","article-title":"Visual-vestibular integration during self-motion perception in younger and older adults","volume":"33","author":"Ramkhalawansingh","year":"2018","journal-title":"Psychol. Aging"},{"key":"ref96","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101899","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pneurobio.2020.101899","article-title":"Adult and endemic neurogenesis in the vestibular nuclei after unilateral vestibular neurectomy","volume":"196","author":"Rastoldo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Prog. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref97","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1016\/bs.pbr.2021.10.005","article-title":"The functional operation of the vestibulo-ocular reflex","author":"Robinson","year":"2022","journal-title":"Prog. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref98","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5661","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-06071-9","article-title":"Balance training improves memory and spatial cognition in healthy adults","volume":"7","author":"Rogge","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref99","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.4103\/NRR.NRR-D-23-01484","article-title":"Multisensory mechanisms of gait and balance in Parkinson's disease: an integrative review","volume":"20","author":"Roytman","year":"2025","journal-title":"Neural Regen. Res."},{"key":"ref100","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.00953.2005","article-title":"Lesions of the vestibular system disrupt hippocampal theta rhythm in the rat","volume":"96","author":"Russell","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref01","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"152","DOI":"10.1007\/s12207-024-09506-7","article-title":"Chronic vestibular system dysfunction after mTBI: Neuropsychology, neuropsychiatry, neuroscience and treatment","volume":"17","author":"Sepehry","year":"2024","journal-title":"Psychological Injury and Law"},{"key":"ref101","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.3233\/VES-2010-0344","article-title":"Differentiating ascending vestibular pathways to the cortex involved in spatial cognition","volume":"20","author":"Shinder","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Vestib. Res."},{"key":"ref102","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"708","DOI":"10.4103\/1673-5374.353484","article-title":"Targeting neuroinflammation in Alzheimer's disease: from mechanisms to clinical applications","volume":"18","author":"Si","year":"2023","journal-title":"Neural Regen. Res."},{"key":"ref103","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"465","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1098-1063(1997)7:5<>3.0.CO;2-G","article-title":"Vestibular-hippocampal interactions","volume":"7","author":"Smith","year":"1997","journal-title":"Hippocampus"},{"key":"ref104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"461","DOI":"10.1163\/22134808-00002469","article-title":"The effects of complete vestibular Deafferentation on spatial memory and the Hippocampus in the rat: the Dunedin experience","volume":"28","author":"Smith","year":"2015","journal-title":"Multisens. Res."},{"key":"ref105","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"424","DOI":"10.1080\/03036758.2024.2412085","article-title":"Animal studies linking the vestibular system and memory: Aotearoa\/New Zealand's contribution","volume":"55","author":"Smith","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. R. Soc. N. Z."},{"key":"ref106","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1244","DOI":"10.1038\/s42003-024-06966-0","article-title":"First evolutionary insights into the human otolithic system","volume":"7","author":"Smith","year":"2024","journal-title":"Communic. Biol."},{"key":"ref107","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2010.00141","article-title":"Modulation of memory by vestibular lesions and galvanic vestibular stimulation","volume":"1","author":"Smith","year":"2010","journal-title":"Front. Neurol."},{"key":"ref108","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"391","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pneurobio.2005.04.004","article-title":"The effects of vestibular lesions on hippocampal function in rats","volume":"75","author":"Smith","year":"2005","journal-title":"Prog. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref109","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"140","DOI":"10.3389\/fnmol.2020.00140","article-title":"Vestibular modulation of Long-term potentiation and NMDA receptor expression in the Hippocampus","volume":"13","author":"Smith","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Mol. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref110","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.1002\/hipo.1112","article-title":"Hippocampal spatial representations require vestibular input","volume":"12","author":"Stackman","year":"2002","journal-title":"Hippocampus"},{"key":"ref111","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"174","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbr.2012.04.013","article-title":"Vestibular stimulation enhances hippocampal long-term potentiation via activation of cholinergic septohippocampal cells","volume":"232","author":"Tai","year":"2012","journal-title":"Behav. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref112","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"914","DOI":"10.1002\/hipo.20955","article-title":"Activation of immobility-related hippocampal theta by cholinergic septohippocampal neurons during vestibular stimulation","volume":"22","author":"Tai","year":"2012","journal-title":"Hippocampus"},{"key":"ref113","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"452","DOI":"10.2174\/1567205014666171113105044","article-title":"Cognitive training in patients with Alzheimer's disease: findings of a 12-month randomized controlled trial","volume":"15","author":"Trebbastoni","year":"2018","journal-title":"Curr. Alzheimer Res."},{"key":"ref114","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"699","DOI":"10.1007\/s00429-018-1792-0","article-title":"Hippocampal LTP modulation and glutamatergic receptors following vestibular loss","volume":"224","author":"Truchet","year":"2019","journal-title":"Brain Struct. Funct."},{"key":"ref115","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1007\/s10162-025-00977-2","article-title":"The inner ear and aging brain: a cross-sectional study of vestibular function and morphometric variations in the entorhinal and trans-entorhinal cortex","volume":"26","author":"Vania","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Assoc. Res. Otolaryngol."},{"key":"ref116","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"S1","DOI":"10.4103\/aian.aian_1105_21","article-title":"Vestibular rehabilitation of the persons affected by benign paroxysmal positional Vertigo (BPPV) by physical therapy and repositioning maneuvers","volume":"26","author":"Vats","year":"2023","journal-title":"Ann. Indian Acad. Neurol."},{"key":"ref117","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"523","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00227958","article-title":"Activation of the hippocampal formation by vestibular stimulation: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study","volume":"112","author":"Vitte","year":"1996","journal-title":"Exp. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref118","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2119","DOI":"10.1007\/s11357-024-01393-9","article-title":"Impact of age-related hearing loss on decompensation of left DLPFC during speech perception in noise: a combined EEG-fNIRS study","volume":"47","author":"Wang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Geroscience"},{"key":"ref119","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"995","DOI":"10.3233\/JAD-170751","article-title":"Vestibular loss predicts poorer spatial cognition in patients with Alzheimer's disease","volume":"61","author":"Wei","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Alzheimer's Dis"},{"key":"ref120","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1143","DOI":"10.2174\/1567205016666190816114838","article-title":"Increased prevalence of vestibular loss in mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer's disease","volume":"16","author":"Wei","year":"2019","journal-title":"Curr. Alzheimer Res."},{"key":"ref121","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"516","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.99516","article-title":"Restoring vestibular function during natural self-motion: progress and challenges","volume":"13","author":"Wiboonsaksakul","year":"2024","journal-title":"eLife"},{"key":"ref122","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1390574","DOI":"10.3389\/fnagi.2024.1390574","article-title":"The relationship between hippocampal changes in healthy aging and Alzheimer\u2019s disease: a systematic literature review. Frontiers in aging","volume":"16","author":"Woodward","year":"2024","journal-title":"Neuroscience"},{"key":"ref123","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4577","DOI":"10.1007\/s00415-024-12419-9","article-title":"Low-intensity vestibular noise stimulation improves postural symptoms in progressive supranuclear palsy","volume":"271","author":"Wuehr","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Neurol."},{"key":"ref124","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"104","DOI":"10.1038\/s41378-022-00436-5","article-title":"Grid cell remapping under three-dimensional object and social landmarks detected by implantable microelectrode arrays for the medial entorhinal cortex","volume":"8","author":"Xu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Microsyst. Nanoeng."},{"key":"ref125","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.3389\/fncir.2019.00075","article-title":"A comparison of neural decoding methods and population coding across Thalamo-cortical head direction cells","volume":"13","author":"Xu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Neural Circuits"},{"key":"ref126","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1104","DOI":"10.1080\/01616412.2025.2515184","article-title":"The vestibulo-hippocampal pathway in the healthy human brain: anatomical study using the diffusion tensor imaging","volume":"47","author":"Yun","year":"2025","journal-title":"Neurol. Res."},{"key":"ref127","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"672","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.00422.2022","article-title":"Vestibulo-spatial navigation: pathways and sense of direction","volume":"129","author":"Zachou","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref128","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"669","DOI":"10.1080\/14737175.2022.2106129","article-title":"Central vestibular dysfunction: don't forget vestibular rehabilitation","volume":"22","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Expert. Rev. Neurother."},{"key":"ref129","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"113820","DOI":"10.1016\/j.physbeh.2022.113820","article-title":"Treadmill exercise improve recognition memory by TREM2 pathway to inhibit hippocampal microglial activation and neuroinflammation in Alzheimer's disease model","volume":"251","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Physiol. Behav."},{"key":"ref130","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/S0306-4522(01)00217-2","article-title":"Damage to the vestibular inner ear causes long-term changes in neuronal nitric oxide synthase expression in the rat hippocampus","volume":"105","author":"Zheng","year":"2001","journal-title":"Neuroscience"},{"key":"ref131","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"106719","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nbd.2024.106719","article-title":"Cognitive impairments and neurobiological changes induced by unilateral vestibular dysfunction in mice","volume":"202","author":"Zhou","year":"2024","journal-title":"Neurobiol. Dis."},{"key":"ref132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e3002902","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pbio.3002902","article-title":"Evolutionarily conserved brainstem architecture enables gravity-guided vertical navigation","volume":"22","author":"Zhu","year":"2024","journal-title":"PLoS Biol."},{"key":"ref133","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2847","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.2605-18.2019","article-title":"Anticipatory Neural Activity Improves the Decoding Accuracy for Dynamic Head-Direction Signals","volume":"39","author":"Zirkelbach","year":"2019","journal-title":"J Neurosci."},{"key":"ref134","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.1097\/WCO.0000000000001230","article-title":"Vestibular contribution to spatial orientation and navigation","volume":"37","author":"Zwergal","year":"2024","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Neurol."}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Neuroscience"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fnins.2026.1779268\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,7]],"date-time":"2026-04-07T05:28:30Z","timestamp":1775539710000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fnins.2026.1779268\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,7]]},"references-count":135,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fnins.2026.1779268"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fnins.2026.1779268","relation":{"has-part":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fnins.2026.1779268.s001","asserted-by":"subject"}]},"ISSN":["1662-453X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1662-453X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,7]]},"article-number":"1779268"}}