{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,21]],"date-time":"2026-08-21T11:46:54Z","timestamp":1787312814579,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":39,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,16]],"date-time":"2026-07-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1784160000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Neurosci."],"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD) is associated with neurodevelopmental impairments, including listening difficulties not always explained by peripheral hearing loss, suggesting alterations at the level of neural auditory processing. The frequency-following response (FFR) provides an objective measure of neural speech encoding and may offer insight into auditory function in this population.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Twenty-five normal-hearing participants were included: 11 individuals with FASD and 14 controls. Speech-evoked FFRs were recorded using a 160\u202fms \/da\/ stimulus at 80\u202fdB SPL with a stimulation rate of 4.35\/s. Pitch tracking, stimulus\u2013response correlation, response latency, and signal quality were analyzed using non-parametric statistics. Given the exploratory nature of the study and uncontrolled demographic variables \u2014 including a significant age difference between groups \u2014 findings should be interpreted as preliminary and hypothesis-generating.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Compared to controls, individuals with FASD showed reduced pitch-tracking consistency and lower stimulus\u2013response correlation, with the most robust finding being a large-effect reduction in F0-range correlation (R[70\u2013120\u202fHz]:\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u202f&amp;lt;\u202f0.001, rank-biserial\n                      <jats:italic>r<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u202f=\u202f0.823). Prolonged latencies were observed across multiple response components, and signal-to-noise ratio tended to be lower in the FASD group.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>This exploratory proof-of-concept study provides preliminary evidence of altered neural speech encoding in individuals with FASD despite normal peripheral hearing. Given uncontrolled confounds, observed differences cannot be specifically attributed to FASD. These findings establish the feasibility of FFR in this population and provide the empirical foundation for future controlled research on auditory biomarkers and intervention monitoring in FASD.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2026.1871045","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,16]],"date-time":"2026-07-16T05:36:25Z","timestamp":1784180185000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Neural speech encoding in fetal alcohol spectrum disorder: an exploratory study using frequency-following responses"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"20","author":[{"given":"Sheila","family":"Templado","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Catholic University San Antonio of Murcia (UCAM)","place":["Murcia, Spain"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Guillermo","family":"Savio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"R&D Department, Intelligent Hearing Systems","place":["Miami, FL, United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Francisco","family":"Garc\u00eda-Purri\u00f1os","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Catholic University San Antonio of Murcia (UCAM)","place":["Murcia, Spain"]},{"name":"Department of Otolaryngology, Los Arcos del Mar Menor University Hospital, San Javier","place":["Murcia, Spain"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.1186\/s12916-024-03656-w","article-title":"Prenatal alcohol exposure and associations with physical size, dysmorphology and neurodevelopment: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"22","author":"Akison","year":"2024","journal-title":"BMC Med."},{"key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"368","DOI":"10.1007\/s12070-020-02127-x","article-title":"Auditory processing in children with specific language impairment: a FFR based study","volume":"74","author":"Barman","year":"2022","journal-title":"Indian J. Otolaryngol. Head Neck Surg."},{"key":"ref3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2018.03.060","article-title":"Subcortical sources dominate the Neuroelectric auditory frequency-following response to speech","volume":"175","author":"Bidelman","year":"2018","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"ref4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1097\/01.HJ.0000425772.41884.1d","article-title":"The fundamentals of MLD for assessing auditory function","volume":"66","author":"Brown","year":"2013","journal-title":"Hearing J"},{"key":"ref5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"11070","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms11070","article-title":"Cortical contributions to the auditory frequency-following response revealed by MEG","volume":"7","author":"Coffey","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref6","first-page":"22","article-title":"Critical periods for prenatal alcohol exposure: evidence from animal and human studies","volume":"18","author":"Coles","year":"1994","journal-title":"Alcohol Health Res World"},{"key":"ref7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e071266","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2022-071266","article-title":"Fetal alcohol Spectrum disorder and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder stimulant trial in children: an N-of-1 pilot trial to compare stimulant to placebo (FASST): protocol","volume":"14","author":"Crichton","year":"2024","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"ref8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101324","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cobeha.2023.101324","article-title":"Contributions of the subcortical auditory system to predictive coding and the neural encoding of speech","volume":"54","author":"Escera","year":"2023","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Behav. Sci."},{"key":"ref9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1590\/S0325-00752010000100011","article-title":"Diagnostic criteria for fetal alcohol syndrome and fetal alcohol Spectrum disorders","author":"Evrard","year":"2010","journal-title":"Arch. Argent. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.3390\/bs14060431","article-title":"Effects of developmental timing on cognitive and behavioral profiles in fetal alcohol Spectrum disorder: considerations for education","volume":"14","author":"Felgueras","year":"2024","journal-title":"Behav. Sci"},{"key":"ref11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"96","DOI":"10.1111\/acer.13263","article-title":"An ERP study of response inhibition in the auditory domain in children with fetal alcohol Spectrum disorders","volume":"41","author":"Gerhold","year":"2017","journal-title":"Alcohol Clin Exp Res"},{"key":"ref12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.1055\/a-2262-7781","article-title":"Reduced interhemispheric coherence and cognition in children with fetal alcohol Spectrum disorder (FASD)\u2014a quantitative EEG study","volume":"55","author":"Gerstner","year":"2024","journal-title":"Neuropediatrics"},{"key":"ref13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"117866","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2021.117866","article-title":"Neural generators of the frequency-following response elicited to stimuli of low and high frequency: a magnetoencephalographic (MEG) study","volume":"231","author":"Gorina-Careta","year":"2021","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"ref14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"198","DOI":"10.1159\/000188533","article-title":"Subcortical laterality of speech encoding","volume":"14","author":"Hornickel","year":"2009","journal-title":"Audiol. Neuro Otol."},{"key":"ref15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1159\/000545065","article-title":"Auditory deficits in a mouse model of first-trimester prenatal alcohol exposure","volume":"48","author":"Jessup","year":"2025","journal-title":"Dev Neurosci"},{"key":"ref16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"424","DOI":"10.1097\/01.aud.0000179687.71662.6e","article-title":"Brain stem response to speech: a biological marker of auditory processing","volume":"26","author":"Johnson","year":"2005","journal-title":"Ear Hear"},{"key":"ref17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1063\/1.3603917","article-title":"Listening in on the listening brain","volume":"64","author":"Kraus","year":"2011","journal-title":"Phys. Today"},{"key":"ref18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.7551\/mitpress\/13606.001.0001","volume-title":"Of Sound Mind: How Our Brain Constructs a Meaningful Sonic World","author":"Kraus","year":"2021"},{"key":"ref19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-47944-6","volume-title":"The Frequency-Following Response: A Window into Human Communication","author":"Kraus","year":"2017"},{"key":"ref20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1016\/j.expneurol.2016.03.013","article-title":"Hippocampal Hyperexcitability in fetal alcohol Spectrum disorder: pathological sharp waves and excitatory\/inhibitory synaptic imbalance","volume":"280","author":"Krawczyk","year":"2016","journal-title":"Exp. Neurol."},{"key":"ref21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"166","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heares.2019.07.002","article-title":"Sex differences in subcortical auditory processing emerge across development","volume":"380","author":"Krizman","year":"2019","journal-title":"Hear. Res."},{"key":"ref22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"107779","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heares.2019.107779","article-title":"Analyzing the FFR: a tutorial for decoding the richness of auditory function","volume":"382","author":"Krizman","year":"2019","journal-title":"Hear. Res."},{"key":"ref23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7877","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1201575109","article-title":"Subcortical encoding of sound is enhanced in bilinguals and relates to executive function advantages","volume":"109","author":"Krizman","year":"2012","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2014.00119","article-title":"Complexities in understanding attentional functioning among children with fetal alcohol Spectrum disorder","volume":"8","author":"Lane","year":"2014","journal-title":"Front. Hum. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e43067","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0043067","article-title":"Ethanol-induced face-brain Dysmorphology patterns are correlative and exposure-stage dependent","volume":"7","author":"Lipinski","year":"2012","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"ref26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1001","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1530-0277.1992.tb01909.x","article-title":"Fetal alcohol syndrome: a case report of neuropsychological, MRI, and EEG assessment of two children","volume":"16","author":"Mattson","year":"1992","journal-title":"Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res."},{"key":"ref27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1532","DOI":"10.1044\/2018_JSLHR-H-18-0359","article-title":"Listening difficulties in children with fetal alcohol Spectrum disorders: more than a problem of audibility","volume":"62","author":"McLaughlin","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Speech Lang. Hear. Res."},{"key":"ref28","volume-title":"Handbook of Central Auditory Processing Disorder, Volume I","author":"Musiek","year":"2013"},{"key":"ref29","first-page":"313","volume-title":"Handbook of Clinical Neurology: The Human Auditory System","author":"Musiek","year":"2015"},{"key":"ref30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"733","DOI":"10.1007\/s00221-017-5164-4","article-title":"Children with autism Spectrum disorder have unstable neural responses to sound","volume":"236","author":"Otto-Meyer","year":"2018","journal-title":"Exp. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e290","DOI":"10.1016\/S2214-109X(17)30021-9","article-title":"Estimation of national, regional, and global prevalence of alcohol use during pregnancy and fetal alcohol syndrome: a systematic review and Meta-analysis","volume":"5","author":"Popova","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lancet Glob. Health"},{"key":"ref32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e13189","DOI":"10.1111\/desc.13189","article-title":"Deficient neural encoding of speech sounds in term neonates born after fetal growth restriction","volume":"25","author":"Ribas-Prats","year":"2022","journal-title":"Dev. Sci."},{"key":"ref33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2021","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinph.2004.04.003","article-title":"Brainstem responses to speech syllables","volume":"115","author":"Russo","year":"2004","journal-title":"Clin. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref34","volume-title":"The Frequency-Following Response: A Window into Human Communication","author":"Schochat","year":"2017"},{"key":"ref35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1044\/1059-0889(2000\/013)","article-title":"Central auditory processes and test measures: ASHA 1996 revisited","volume":"9","author":"Schow","year":"2000","journal-title":"Am J Audiol."},{"key":"ref36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"302","DOI":"10.1097\/AUD.0b013e3181cdb272","article-title":"Auditory brain stem response to complex sounds: a tutorial","volume":"31","author":"Skoe","year":"2010","journal-title":"Ear Hear"},{"key":"ref37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"509","DOI":"10.3390\/biology13070509","article-title":"Neural delays in processing speech in background noise minimized after short-term auditory training","volume":"13","author":"Skoe","year":"2024","journal-title":"Biology"},{"key":"ref38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1720","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1530-0277.2012.01769.x","article-title":"Delays in auditory processing identified in preschool children with FASD","volume":"36","author":"Stephen","year":"2012","journal-title":"Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res."},{"key":"ref39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"760","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(19)30150-4","article-title":"Clinical presentation, diagnosis, and Management of Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder","volume":"18","author":"Wozniak","year":"2019","journal-title":"The Lancet Neurology"}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Neuroscience"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fnins.2026.1871045\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,16]],"date-time":"2026-07-16T05:36:26Z","timestamp":1784180186000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fnins.2026.1871045\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,16]]},"references-count":39,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fnins.2026.1871045"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fnins.2026.1871045","relation":{},"ISSN":["1662-453X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1662-453X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,16]]},"article-number":"1871045"}}