{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]],"date-time":"2026-09-30T06:56:53Z","timestamp":1790751413534,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":96,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]],"date-time":"2026-09-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790726400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000038","name":"Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000038","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000024","name":"Canadian Institutes of Health Research","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000024","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100009408","name":"Fondation Brain Canada","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100009408","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Neurosci."],"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Introduction<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Concept learning is not an isolated act of cognition; it recruits a host of core mechanisms, including working memory, decision making, and attention. A wide range of brain networks spanning cortical and subcortical areas support these operations, which have been identified via activation patterns related to concept learning. A critical open question, however, is whether the white matter architecture connecting these regions serves as the structural scaffold that makes such flexible learning possible.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>We employed a rule-plus-exception learning paradigm wherein participants categorized visually complex stimuli. While some items closely followed the rules, exceptions violated them, acting as a behavioural index of flexible learning. We quantified the integrity of white matter tracts across the whole human brain using diffusion-weighted imaging and leveraged correlational tractography to uncover their behavioural relevance.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Correlational tractography revealed two distinct white matter networks associated with individual variability in either rule or exception learning. The network supporting exception learning was predominantly subcortical-limbic, comprising the fornix, thalamic radiations, and forceps minor alongside the left frontal-parietal cingulum, a pattern consistent with hippocampal-prefrontal communication and cognitive control over atypical exemplars. Conversely, the network for rule-based items was distinguished by long-range cortico-cortical and cortico-cerebellar pathways, including the right frontal-parietal cingulum, the middle longitudinal fasciculus, and the middle cerebellar peduncle, reflecting the integration of visual features with abstract rule representations and their gradual automatization.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Discussion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>These findings provide novel evidence that complementary white matter networks support flexible concept formation and offer a neuroanatomical basis for characterizing individual differences in flexible concept learning.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2026.1877268","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]],"date-time":"2026-09-30T06:06:31Z","timestamp":1790748391000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Complementary white matter networks support flexible concept learning"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"20","author":[{"given":"Melisa","family":"Gumus","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, University of Toronto","place":["Toronto, ON, Canada"]},{"name":"Department of Psychology, University of California Berkeley","place":["Berkeley, CA, United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nahal","family":"Alizadeh Saghati","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, University of Toronto","place":["Toronto, ON, Canada"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Michael L.","family":"Mack","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, University of Toronto","place":["Toronto, ON, Canada"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"425","DOI":"10.1017\/S0140525X99002034","article-title":"Episodic memory, amnesia, and the hippocampal-anterior thalamic axis.","volume":"22","author":"Aggleton","year":"1999","journal-title":"Behav. 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