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Syst. Neurosci."],"abstract":"<jats:p>The human brain has the capacity to drastically alter its somatotopic representations in response to congenital or acquired limb deficiencies and dysfunctions. The main purpose of the present study was to elucidate such extreme adaptability in the brain of an active top wheelchair racing Paralympian (participant P1) who has congenital paraplegia (dysfunction of bilateral lower limbs). Participant P1 has undergone long-term wheelchair racing training using bilateral upper limbs and has won a total of 19 medals in six consecutive summer Paralympic games as of 2021. We examined the functional and structural changes in the foot section of the primary motor cortex (M1) in participant P1 as compared to able-bodied control participants. We also examined the functional and structural changes in three other individuals (participants P2, P3, and P4) with acquired paraplegia, who also had long-term non-use period of the lower limbs and had undergone long-term training for wheelchair sports (but not top athletes at the level of participant P1). We measured brain activity in all the participants using functional magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) when bimanual wrist extension-flexion movement was performed, and the structural MRI images were collected. Compared to 37 control participants, participant P1 showed significantly greater activity in the M1 foot section during the bimanual task, and significant local GM expansion in this section. Significantly greater activity in the M1 foot section was also observed in participant P4, but not in P2 and P3, and the significant local GM expansion was observed in participant P2, but not in P3 and P4. Thus, functional or structural change was observed in an acquired paraplegic participant, but was not observed in all the paraplegic participants. The functional and structural changes typically observed in participant P1 may represent extreme adaptability of the human brain. We discuss the results in terms of a new idea of hyper-adaptation.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fnsys.2022.780652","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,12]],"date-time":"2022-04-12T02:35:09Z","timestamp":1649730909000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["Hyper-Adaptation in the Human Brain: Functional and Structural Changes in the Foot Section of the Primary Motor Cortex in a Top Wheelchair Racing Paralympian"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Tomoyo","family":"Morita","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Satoshi","family":"Hirose","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nodoka","family":"Kimura","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hiromasa","family":"Takemura","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Minoru","family":"Asada","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Eiichi","family":"Naito","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"832","DOI":"10.1515\/jpm-2017-0158","article-title":"Ultrasound study of fetal movements in singleton and twin pregnancies at 12-19 weeks.","volume":"46","author":"AboEllail","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. 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