{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,8]],"date-time":"2026-10-08T03:29:00Z","timestamp":1791430140430,"version":"4.3.3"},"reference-count":69,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,28]],"date-time":"2023-11-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1701129600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Nutr."],"abstract":"<jats:sec><jats:title>Background\/objectives<\/jats:title><jats:p>The health benefits provided by resistant starch have been well documented; however, few studies are available on the resistant starch content of wheat products in India. Moreover, few studies have examined the <jats:italic>in vivo<\/jats:italic> efficacy of resistant starch in wheat products in improving glucose levels. This study was conducted to evaluate the effect of cooking and storage temperature on the formation of resistant starch in Indian wheat products and its effect on blood glucose levels in humans and rats.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title><jats:p>Wheat products were prepared by common cooking methods including roasting (<jats:italic>Chapati<\/jats:italic>), boiling (<jats:italic>Dalia<\/jats:italic>), Shallow frying (<jats:italic>Paratha<\/jats:italic>), and Deep frying (<jats:italic>Poori<\/jats:italic>). They were then stored at different temperatures including freshly prepared within 1\u2009h (T1), stored for 24\u2009h at room temperature (20-22\u00b0C) (T2), kept at 4\u00b0C for 24\u2009h (T3) and reheated after storing at 4\u00b0C for 24\u2009h (T4). The products were then analyzed for proximate composition (moisture, crude protein, crude fat, ash crude fibre, and carbohydrates). The effect of different cooking methods and storage temperatures on Resistant, non-resistant and total starch, total dietary fibre (soluble and insoluble), <jats:italic>in vitro<\/jats:italic> starch digestion rate (rapidly and slowly digestible starch), amylose and amylopectin content were analysed using standard operating procedures. The effect of products found to have higher resistant starch was studied on the post prandial blood glucose response of 10 healthy individuals using change in by analysing their glycemic index and glycemic load of wheat products. Further, the effect of resistant starch rich <jats:italic>chapati<\/jats:italic> on the blood glucose level of rats was also studied. Tukey\u2019s test in factorial CRD was used to assess the effect of cooking and temperature on various parameters.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Results<\/jats:title><jats:p>The amount of resistant starch was found to be high in <jats:italic>dalia<\/jats:italic> (boiling, 7.74%), followed by <jats:italic>parantha<\/jats:italic> (shallow frying, 4.94%), <jats:italic>chapati<\/jats:italic> (roasting, 2.77%) and <jats:italic>poori<\/jats:italic> (deep frying 2.47%). Under different storage temperatures, it was found high in products stored at 4\u00b0C (T3), followed by products stored at room temperature (T2), reheated products (T4) and lesser in freshly prepared products (T1). The glycemic index and glycemic load were found low in <jats:italic>chapati<\/jats:italic> (43, 32.3) and <jats:italic>dalia<\/jats:italic> (41.1, 28.6) stored at 4\u00b0C (T3) compared to others. The resistant starch content found in <jats:italic>chapati<\/jats:italic> stored at T3 was found to be more effective at reducing blood glucose levels in rats from 291.0\u2009mg\/100\u2009mL to 225.2\u2009mg\/100\u2009mL in 28\u2009days of study compared to freshly prepared <jats:italic>chapati<\/jats:italic> (T1) and stored at room temperature (T2).<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title><jats:p>Cooking methods including boiling, roasting and shallow frying increased the amount of resistant starch in foods, but cooking methods such as deep frying decreased the amount of resistant starch in food. Products stored at 4\u00b0C and at room temperature for 24\u2009h increased the amount of resistant starch whereas the products that were freshly cooked and reheated decreased the amount of resistant starch in foods. At 4\u00b0C the stored products have a high amount of insoluble dietary fibre, slowly digestible starch, high amylose and low glycemic index. They take time to digest, meaning that they slowly increase blood glucose levels. The effect of insoluble dietary fibre and resistant starch in the inhibition of glucose diffusion in the small intestine is suggested to be due to the absorption or inclusion of the smaller sugar molecules. <jats:italic>In vivo<\/jats:italic> research showed that fibre and resistant starch in the digestive system of rats acts as the main factors in slowing glucose absorption and reducing a rise in blood glucose levels by promoting glycogen synthesis and inhibition of gluconeogenesis.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fnut.2023.1284487","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,28]],"date-time":"2023-11-28T05:40:04Z","timestamp":1701150004000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":14,"title":["Effect of cooking and storage temperature on resistant starch in commonly consumed Indian wheat products and its effect upon blood glucose level"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"10","author":[{"given":"Prabhjot","family":"Kaur","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Harpreet","family":"Kaur","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Renuka","family":"Aggarwal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kiran","family":"Bains","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Amrit Kaur","family":"Mahal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"O. P","family":"Gupta","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lachhman Das","family":"Singla","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kulvinder","family":"Singh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","first-page":"33","article-title":"Classification and measurement of nutritionally important starch fractions","volume":"46","author":"Englyst","year":"1992","journal-title":"Eur J Clin Nutr"},{"key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-3010.2005.00481.x","article-title":"Health properties of resistant starch","volume":"30","author":"Nugent","year":"2005","journal-title":"Nutr Bull"},{"key":"ref3","first-page":"292","article-title":"Resistant starches as low-carb ingredients - current applications and issues","volume":"49","author":"Patil","year":"2004","journal-title":"Cereal Foods World"},{"key":"ref4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"756","DOI":"10.1093\/jaoac\/87.3.756","article-title":"Diet and metabolic syndrome: where does resistant starch fit in?","volume":"87","author":"Tapsell","year":"2004","journal-title":"J Assoc Official Analyt Chem"},{"key":"ref5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jada.2007.10.012","article-title":"Resistant starch intakes in the United States","volume":"108","author":"Murphy","year":"2008","journal-title":"J American Dietetic Assoc"},{"key":"ref6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1968","DOI":"10.1002\/jsfa.6966","article-title":"Resistant starch in food: a review","volume":"95","author":"Raigond","year":"2015","journal-title":"J Sci Food Agric"},{"key":"ref7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1541-4337.2006.tb00076.x","article-title":"Resistant starch\u2013a review","volume":"5","author":"Sajilata","year":"2006","journal-title":"Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf"},{"key":"ref8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"648","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbpol.2007.07.016","article-title":"In vitro digestibility of edible films from various starch sources","volume":"71","author":"Hern\u00e1ndez","year":"2008","journal-title":"Carboh Polym"},{"key":"ref9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"10239","DOI":"10.1021\/jf9023678","article-title":"Phytate reduction in bran-enriched bread by phytase producing bifidobacteria","volume":"57","author":"Sanz-Penella","year":"2009","journal-title":"J Agric Food Chem"},{"key":"ref10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"406","DOI":"10.1002\/star.201000099","article-title":"Resistant starch as prebiotic: a review","volume":"63","author":"Fuentes-Zaragoza","year":"2011","journal-title":"Starch - St\u00e4rke"},{"key":"ref11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.17113\/ftb.58.01.20.6239","article-title":"Application of spectrophotometric fingerprint in cluster analysis for starch origin determination","volume":"58","author":"Sakac","year":"2020","journal-title":"Food Technol Biotechnol"},{"key":"ref12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2008.12.007","article-title":"The impact of single and dual hydrothermal modifications on the molecular structure and physicochemical properties of normal corn starch","volume":"44","author":"Chung","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int J of Biolo Macro"},{"key":"ref13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"503","DOI":"10.1094\/CCHEM-86-5-0503","article-title":"Characterization of resistant starch samples prepared from two highAmylose maize starches through debranching and heat treatments","volume":"86","author":"Ozturk","year":"2011","journal-title":"Cereal Chem"},{"key":"ref14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"306","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbpol.2006.01.019","article-title":"Resistant starch formation in temperature treated potato starches varying in amylose\/ amylopectin ratio","volume":"65","author":"Margareta Leeman","year":"2006","journal-title":"Carbohydr Polym"},{"key":"ref15","first-page":"33","article-title":"Resistant starch-the neglected dietary fiber? 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